A raga (or raag) is a melodic framework for improvisation and composition in Indian classical music, encompassing both Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian) traditions. Each raga is defined by a specific set of ascending and descending note patterns (arohana and avarohana), characteristic phrases, and emotional moods (rasa). Unlike Western scales, ragas are not merely scale types but are governed by rules for which notes are emphasized, how they are ornamented, and the time of day or season traditionally associated with their performance.

1 History and Origins

1.1 Ancient texts (Samaveda, Natya Shastra)

The earliest references to melodic structures resembling ragas appear in the *Samaveda* (c. 1200–1000 BCE), a collection of chants arranged for liturgical singing. The *Natya Shastra* (c. 200 BCE–200 CE), attributed to Bharata Muni, provides the first systematic description of *jati* (melodic types) and *grama* (scale systems), which later evolved into raga theory. These texts classify notes (*swara*) and their expressive qualities, laying the groundwork for the raga tradition.

1.2 Development into Hindustani and Carnatic streams

After the 12th century, the Islamic influence in northern India led to a divergence from the southern tradition. Hindustani music absorbed Persian and Mughal elements, emphasizing improvisation and the *khyal* form, while Carnatic music remained more closely tied to Hindu temple traditions and fixed compositions. By the 16th century, the two streams had distinct repertoires, scale systems, and performance practices.

1.3 Key historical figures and treatises

Important figures include Matanga (author of *Brihaddeshi*, c. 7th–9th century, which first used the term “raga”), Sarngadeva (author of *Sangita Ratnakara*, 13th century, a comprehensive musical encyclopedia), and the 16th-century scholar Venkatamakhin (who formalized the Carnatic melakarta system). In the Hindustani tradition, musicians like Tansen (16th century) and theorists like Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande (early 20th century) shaped modern raga classification.

2 Theoretical Framework

2.1 Swara (notes) and shruti (microtones)

A raga uses seven basic *swaras* (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni), each of which can be natural (*shuddha*), flat (*komal*), or sharp (*tivra*). Additionally, *shruti* refers to the 22 microtonal intervals in Indian theory, though in practice, most performances rely on the twelve-semitone equal-tempered system. The choice of *shrutis* gives each raga its distinctive intonation.

2.2 Arohana and Avarohana (ascending and descending scales)

Every raga has a prescribed *arohana* (ascending sequence) and *avarohana* (descending sequence). These may omit or repeat notes, and the order can differ between ascent and descent, giving each raga a unique scale. For example, Raga Bhimpalasi uses the notes *Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa* in ascent, but *Sa Ni Dha Pa Ma Ga Re Sa* in descent, with certain notes skipped.

2.3 Vadi, Samvadi, and Vivadi (primary, secondary, and dissonant notes)

The *vadi* is the most prominent note in a raga, often used as a resting point; the *samvadi* is the second most important, usually a perfect fourth or fifth away from the *vadi*. The *vivadi* is a note considered dissonant and avoided or used sparingly. These distinctions define the raga’s melodic hierarchy.

2.4 Raga vinyasa (structural rules)

*Raga vinyasa* governs the permissible order of notes, characteristic phrases (*pakad* or *mukhayi*), and typical ornamentation (*gamaka*). Each raga has a unique set of rules that distinguish it from similar-sounding ones. Breaking these rules may change the raga or render the performance incorrect.

2.5 Time theory (samay) and seasonal association

Traditionally, ragas are associated with specific times of day or night (*samay*) and sometimes with seasons. For instance, morning ragas like Bhairav and Todi are performed at dawn, while evening ragas like Yaman and Kalyani are reserved for night. The seasonal association links ragas to monsoons (e.g., Raga Megh Malhar) or spring (e.g., Raga Basant).

2.6 Rasa (emotional essence)

Each raga is intended to evoke a distinct *rasa* (emotional flavor), such as devotion (*bhakti*), love (*shringara*), or heroism (*vira*). The choice of notes, emphasis, and tempo all contribute to creating a particular mood. This aesthetic principle is central to both performance and composition.

3 Classification Systems

3.1 Hindustani thaat system

3.1.1 The ten thaats defined by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande

In the early 20th century, Bhatkhande grouped Hindustani ragas into ten *thaats* (parent scales), each defined by a fixed ascending sequence of seven notes. The ten thaats are: Bilawal, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, Bhairav, Kalyan, Marwa, Purvi, and Todi. This system simplifies the organization of hundreds of ragas by their basic scale.

3.1.2 Relationship between thaat and raga

A thaat is a theoretical scale, whereas a raga is a melodic framework with additional rules (e.g., note emphasis, omission, and phrase patterns). Not all ragas belong neatly to a single thaat—some have notes that cross thaat boundaries, leading to debate among scholars.

3.2 Carnatic melakarta system

3.2.1 72 melakarta parent scales

The Carnatic *melakarta* system, codified by Venkatamakhin in the 17th century, defines 72 parent scales (*melas*). These are derived by permuting the positions of the *swaras* (subject to constraints) and form a comprehensive theoretical framework. Each mela is named and has a fixed *arohana* and *avarohana*.

3.2.2 Janya ragas (derived ragas)

From each mela, many *janya* (derived) ragas are generated by omitting notes, altering sequences, or using variant forms of notes. There are thousands of janya ragas, though only a few hundred are commonly performed. For example, Raga Shankarabharanam corresponds to the 29th mela, while Raga Kalyani corresponds to the 65th mela.

3.3 Other classifications (raganga, gharana-specific)

In addition to thaat and melakarta, ragas can be grouped by *raganga* (the predominant phrase or note pattern) or by *gharana* (family tradition). For instance, the Bhairav ang includes ragas that share the characteristic use of komal Re and shuddha Dha, such as Bhairav, Jogia, and Kalingra. Gharana-specific classifications reflect stylistic preferences of different musical lineages.

4 Performance Practice

4.1 Alap (slow, unmetered exploration)

The *alap* is an introductory, rhythmically free section that gradually reveals the raga’s notes and phrases. The performer begins on the lower octave, slowly ascending and exploring the raga’s contours. No percussion accompanies the alap, allowing complete rhythmic freedom.

4.2 Jor and Jhala (rhythmic development)

In Hindustani instrumental music, the *jor* introduces a steady pulse without a fixed tala (rhythmic cycle). The *jhala* is a climactic section with rapid strumming and increasing tempo. Together, these sections build energy and prepare for the fixed composition.

4.3 Bandish (fixed composition) with lyrics

The *bandish* is a pre-composed piece (usually with lyrics) that provides the core structure for performance. In Hindustani music, bandishes are composed in specific ragas and talas, often with themes of love, devotion, or nature. Carnatic music uses *kriti* as the equivalent fixed composition.

4.4 Tala (rhythmic cycle) integration

Every bandish is set to a *tala*—a repeating rhythmic cycle measured in beats (e.g., Teental with 16 beats, Ektaal with 12 beats). The performer improvises within the tala, returning to the bandish's key phrase (*sam*) at the cycle’s start.

4.5 Improvisation techniques: taan, sargam, meend

*Taan* consists of fast, rhythmically precise runs of notes; *sargam* uses the note names (Sa, Re, etc.) as syllables; *meend* is a smooth glide between notes. These techniques allow the performer to embellish the raga and demonstrate virtuosity while adhering to the raga’s rules.

5 Notable Ragas and Their Characteristics

5.1 Hindustani ragas

5.1.1 Yaman (evening, serene)

Yaman uses shuddha (natural) notes except for tivra Ma (sharp fourth). It evokes a calm, devotional mood and is typically performed in the evening. Its characteristic phrases emphasize the notes Ni and Sa, with smooth transitions.

5.1.2 Bhairav (dawn, devotion)

Bhairav employs komal Re and komal Dha, giving it a solemn, reverential character. It is associated with the early morning and is often used in devotional compositions. The raga’s *pakad* often moves through Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni with a specific weight on Re.

5.1.3 Todi (morning, intense)

Todi uses komal Re, komal Ga, tivra Ma, and komal Dha, creating a sharp, poignant mood. It is performed in the late morning and is considered one of the most demanding ragas due to its precise intonation and ornamentation.

5.2 Carnatic ragas

5.2.1 Shankarabharanam (day, joy)

Shankarabharanam corresponds to the 29th mela and is equivalent to the Western major scale. It is associated with daytime, happiness, and grandeur. Its *arohana* is Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa, and it is used in many popular kritis.

5.2.2 Kalyani (evening, grandeur)

Kalyani (65th mela) uses tivra Ma and all other notes natural. It evokes a majestic, serene mood and is often performed in evening concerts. The raga emphasizes the notes Ga and Ni.

5.2.3 Todi (similar but distinct from Hindustani Todi)

Carnatic Todi (8th mela) has a different scale: Sa, komal Re, komal Ga, shuddha Ma, Pa, komal Dha, komal Ni. Despite sharing the name with Hindustani Todi, the two are distinct in note usage and mood. Carnatic Todi has a more introspective, plaintive quality.

6 Contemporary Usage and Cross-Cultural Influence

6.1 Fusion with Western music

Since the mid-20th century, ragas have been incorporated into Western classical, jazz, and world music. Composers like John Coltrane (influenced by Raga Bhimpalasi) and Philip Glass (collaborations with Ravi Shankar) have used raga elements. Fusion bands such as Shakti combine ragas with jazz improvisation.

Bollywood and Kollywood songs frequently employ ragas as melodic bases, simplified for mass appeal. International artists like The Beatles (e.g., "Norwegian Wood" using Raga Kafi) and George Harrison popularized raga-inspired sounds in the 1960s. Today, ragas appear in electronic, ambient, and indie music.

6.3 Digital tools for raga recognition and composition

Software like *Raga Recognition* and *Swaranjali* uses machine learning to identify ragas from audio clips. Online platforms allow users to compose and notate ragas. These tools aid both students and researchers in analyzing and preserving the tradition.

7 Learning and Transmission

7.1 Guru-shishya parampara (teacher-student tradition)

Traditionally, ragas are transmitted orally from *guru* to *shishya* (disciple) over many years. The student learns by imitation, memorization, and gradual absorption of the raga’s nuances. This intimate method ensures stylistic continuity and deep understanding.

7.2 Oral notation and common notations (Bhatkhande, Sargam)

While Indian classical music is primarily aural, written notations exist. The Bhatkhande system uses a combination of letters and symbols (e.g., *S, r, G, m, P, d, N* with underlines for flat/sharp). Sargam notation simply writes the note names. Such notations serve as memory aids, not as a substitute for oral learning.

7.3 Role of gharana (stylistic family) in preserving tradition

A *gharana* (literally “house”) is a lineage of musicians who share a distinct style of raga interpretation, ornamentation, and composition. Gharanas preserve specific interpretations and techniques, such as the Jaipur gharana’s emphasis on intricate *taan* or the Kirana gharana’s focus on *alap*. Despite modern globalization, gharanas remain influential in shaping performance practice.