1.1 Vedic period and ancient roots

Indian classical music traces its earliest origins to the Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE), when the oral recitation of the four Vedas—particularly the *Samaveda*—established principles of pitch, accent, and melodic structure. The *Samaveda* was chanted using three primary notes (udatta, anudatta, svarita), forming a rudimentary scale. The theoretical foundation was later codified in the *Natya Shastra* (c. 200 BCE–200 CE), attributed to the sage Bharata. This treatise defined the *raga* concept, introduced the *tala* system, and described the 22 *shrutis* (microtones), the *grama* scales, and the *jati* classification of melodies. Music was integral to ritual, theatre, and courtly life during this period.

1.2 Medieval period and the bifurcation

From the 7th to 12th centuries, regional styles began to diverge. The bifurcation into Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian) traditions became pronounced after the 13th century, driven by political, cultural, and linguistic changes.

1.2.1 The influence of Persian and Mughal courts on Hindustani music

The Delhi Sultanate (13th–16th centuries) and subsequent Mughal Empire brought Persian musical elements into North India. Persian maqams influenced the development of new ragas, and instruments like the *sitar* (derived from the Persian *setar*), *sarod*, and *tabla* emerged. Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), a Sufi poet and musician, is credited with creating the *khayal* vocal form and the *qawwali* devotional style. Mughal patronage under rulers such as Akbar fostered synthesis between indigenous and Persian traditions, leading to the *dhrupad* style and the system of *gharanas*.

1.2.2 The Vijayanagara Empire and the solidification of Carnatic music

In South India, the Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) provided a stable environment for the preservation and systematisation of indigenous music. The *Sangita Ratnakara* (13th century) by Sarngadeva, though written in the Deccan, became a key theoretical reference for both traditions. Carnatic music crystallised under the patronage of the Thanjavur Maratha court (17th–19th centuries), where the *kriti* form was refined. Notable composers such as Purandara Dasa (1484–1564), the "father of Carnatic music," established the basic teaching syllabus (*saraḷī varisai*, *janti varisai*), and the Trinity of Carnatic music—Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri—flourished in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

1.3 Modern era (19th–20th centuries)

The 19th century saw the decline of court patronage and the rise of public concerts, recording technology, and print media. Hindu reform movements and nationalist sentiment revived interest in classical music. Institutions such as the Marris College of Hindustani Music (later Bhatkhande Music Institute) in Lucknow and the Madras Music Academy (founded 1928) standardised repertoire and pedagogy. Figures like Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande (1860–1936) and Vishnu Digambar Paluskar (1872–1931) compiled and notated thousands of compositions, preserving the oral tradition in written form. In the 20th century, Indian classical music gained international visibility through the tours of Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan, and the UNESCO designation in 2008 affirmed its global significance.

2.1 Raga

*Raga* (Sanskrit: "colour" or "passion") is the melodic framework that defines a piece of Indian classical music. Each raga is a set of ascending and descending notes (*aroha* and *avaroha*) with characteristic phrases, ornamentations, and melodic contours. Ragas are associated with specific times of day, seasons, and moods.

2.1.1 Structure and classification

Ragas are classified in two primary systems: in Hindustani music, the *thaat* system (ten parent scales) formalised by Bhatkhande; in Carnatic music, the *melakarta* system (72 parent scales). Each raga may be *audava* (pentatonic), *shadava* (hexatonic), or *sampurna* (heptatonic), with omissions or repetitions allowed. The *vadi* (tonic-dominant) and *samvadi* (subdominant-supertonic) notes are emphasised, while other notes are used sparingly (*varjya*). Unique to Carnatic is the *janya* classification, where derived ragas retain the parent scale's notes.

2.1.2 Raga–rasa connection (aesthetic emotion)

The *Natya Shastra* described nine *rasas* (aesthetic emotions): *shringara* (love), *hasya* (humour), *karuna* (pathos), *raudra* (anger), *vira* (heroism), *bhayanaka* (fear), *bibhatsa* (disgust), *adbhuta* (wonder), and *shanta* (peace). Each raga is believed to evoke one or more *rasas* through its note combinations and performance ornamentation. For example, Raga Yaman is associated with *shringara* (love and devotion), while Raga Bhairavi evokes *karuna* (pathos). The *rasa* experience is central to both performance and listener appreciation.

2.2 Tala

*Tala* is the rhythmic cycle that governs time in Indian classical music. It consists of a fixed number of beats (*matras*) arranged in groups (*vibhagas*). The cycle repeats, with the first beat (*sam*) being the most important accent.

2.2.1 Tala cycles and notation systems

Talas are notated using *bols* (syllabic mnemonics) that represent drum strokes. In Hindustani music, talas are often shown as a sequence of *theka* (basic pattern) kept by the tabla. Carnatic music uses a system of *angas* (limbs): *laghu* (variable count), *drutam* (two beats), and *anudrutam* (one beat). The *sollukattu* (vocalised syllables) aids memorisation. Common notations include the *pad* (written) and the hand gestures (*kriya*) used by the performer.

2.2.2 Common talas in Hindustani and Carnatic traditions

Hindustani music frequently employs *Teental* (16 beats), *Jhaptal* (10 beats), *Ektaal* (12 beats), and *Dadra* (6 beats). Carnatic music uses *Adi Tala* (8 beats, equivalent to 2 kalai), *Rupaka Tala* (6 beats), *Kanda Chapu* (5 beats), and *Misra Chapu* (7 beats). Both traditions also feature complex talas such as *Sankeerna Jati* (9 beats) and *Ata Tala* (14–16 beats) in Carnatic, or *Sooltal* (10 beats) in Hindustani.

2.3 Shruti and swara

2.3.1 Microtonal intervals (22 shrutis)

The octave in Indian classical music is divided into 22 *shrutis*—microtonal intervals that are not equally tempered. The distribution is based on natural harmonic ratios: the *shadja* (tonic) and *panchama* (fifth) are fixed, while the other *swaras* have two or three possible microtonal positions. For example, the *rishabha* (second) may be *chatusruti* (4 shrutis) or *shatsruti* (6 shrutis). The *shruti* system allows subtle pitch variations essential for *gamakas* (ornamentations). In practice, most performers use a tempered 12-note scale, but the *shruti* concept remains foundational for understanding raga moods.

2.3.2 The seven swaras and their variants

The seven *swaras* (notes) are: *Sa* (shadja), *Re* (rishabha), *Ga* (gandhara), *Ma* (madhyama), *Pa* (panchama), *Dha* (dhaivata), *Ni* (nishada). Each except *Sa* and *Pa* has two or three variants: *komal* (flat), *shuddha* (natural), and *tivra* (sharp). In Hindustani music, *Re*, *Ga*, *Dha*, *Ni* are either *komal* or *shuddha*; *Ma* is either *shuddha* or *tivra*. Carnatic music uses a more complex nomenclature: for example, *Rishabha* can be *shuddha*, *chatusruti*, or *shatsruti*; *Gandhara* has three forms (*shuddha*, *sadharna*, *antara*). The *swara* positions determine the parent scale and define raga identity.

3.1 Hindustani classical music

Hindustani music, prevalent in North India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal, evolved under Persian and Mughal influence. It emphasises improvisation and the expressive rendering of *ragas*, with a focus on *khayal* and *dhrupad* vocal forms, as well as instrumental solo performance. The tradition is primarily oral and features a *drone* (usually tambura) and a *tabla* percussion accompaniment.

3.1.1 Gharanas (stylistic schools)

*Gharanas* are lineages of musical style, transmitted from guru to disciple. They differ in ornamentation, tempo, and approach to raga development. The major gharanas include Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur, Kirana, Patiala, and Rampur.

3.1.1.1 Major gharanas: Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur, Kirana, etc.

  • Gwalior gharana: The oldest, known for structured *khayal* and plaintive *gamakas*. Founders include Ustad Haddu Khan (d. 1890).
  • Agra gharana: Emphasises *dhrupad* influence and rhythmic complexity; known for *nom-tom* alap.
  • Jaipur gharana: Favours fast *taans* and intricate *layakari*; associated with Ustad Alladiya Khan.
  • Kirana gharana: Known for slow, meditative *vilambit khayal* and *gamak* ornamentation; prominent figures include Ustad Abdul Karim Khan.
  • Patiala gharana: Noted for *thumri* and *tappa*; blends folk and classical elements.
  • Rampur gharana: Specialises in *dhrupad* and *khayal*; associated with Ustad Inayat Khan.

3.1.2 Vocal forms: Dhrupad, Khayal, Thumri, Tappa

  • Dhrupad: The oldest extant vocal form, performed with a *tanpura* and *pakhawaj*. It features a slow, solemn *alap* without percussion, followed by a rhythmic composition. Text is often devotional or heroic.
  • Khayal: The dominant modern form, meaning "imagination." It comprises slow (*vilambit*) and fast (*drut*) sections, with improvisation on *taans*, *sargam*, and *bol-bant*. Accompanied by tabla.
  • Thumri: A lighter, semi-classical form focusing on romantic and devotional lyrics. Has a flexible *raga* framework and allows expressive *gamakas*.
  • Tappa: Originating from Persian *tappa* song, it features rapid, intricate *taans* and syncopation. Percussion-intensive.

3.1.3 Instrumental traditions: Sitar, Sarod, Bansuri, Tabla

  • Sitar: A plucked string instrument with a gourd resonator, movable frets, and sympathetic strings. The sitar (*gandhar* style) produces a resonant, twanging tone.
  • Sarod: A fretless lute with a metal fingerboard, played with a plectrum. Known for deep *meend* (slides) and rapid *gamakas*.
  • Bansuri: A bamboo flute with six or seven finger holes. Associated with Lord Krishna, it produces a mellow, flowing sound.
  • Tabla: A pair of hand drums (bayan, dayan) used for rhythm accompaniment. The tabla player's *theka* outlines the tala and provides improvisational interplay.

3.2 Carnatic classical music

Carnatic music, dominant in South India (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh), is highly structured and composition-based. It values precise *shruti* and *ragam* adherence, and features fixed *kriti* compositions alongside improvisation. The *raga* is often introduced by *alapana* before a *kriti*.

3.2.1 Composers and the *kriti* form (Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama Sastri)

The *kriti* is the central composition in Carnatic music, typically having three parts: *pallavi*, *anupallavi*, and *charanam*. The Trinity of Carnatic music—Tyagaraja (1767–1847), Muthuswami Dikshitar (1775–1835), and Syama Sastri (1762–1827)—created thousands of *kritis* that remain central to the repertoire. Tyagaraja's *Pancharatna Kritis* and Dikshitar's *Nottuswarams* are iconic. Other major composers include Annamacharya (15th century), Purandara Dasa, and Oothukadu Venkata Subba Iyer.

3.2.2 Performance formats: Raga Alapana, Kriti, Niraval, Kalpanaswaram

  • Raga Alapana: An unmeasured, improvisatory exposition of the raga, using *gamaka* ornamentation and *sangati* variations.
  • Kriti: The main composition, sung with strict rhythm after *alapana*.
  • Niraval: Improvisation on a line of the *kriti* text, maintaining the same notes.
  • Kalpanaswaram: Rapid, improvised solfege passages (swara sequences) sung at the end of the *kriti*.
  • Ragam Tanam Pallavi: An extended, virtuosic form that combines *raga* (alapana), *tanam* (rhythmic improvisation), and *pallavi* (a fixed melodic-rhythmic phrase).

3.2.3 Instruments: Veena, Violin, Mridangam, Ghatam

  • Veena: A large plucked string instrument with a gourd resonator and 24 frets; considered the epitome of Carnatic instrumental music.
  • Violin: Introduced in the 19th century, now an essential melodic accompaniment. It is played sitting cross-legged, the instrument held against the shoulder.
  • Mridangam: A double-headed barrel drum used as the primary percussion.
  • Ghatam: A clay pot played with hands, producing a ringing tone. Often used as a secondary percussion instrument.
  • Kanjira (tambourine frame drum) and Morsing (jaw harp) also appear in ensembles.

4.1 Concert structure

4.1.1 Hindustani: Alap, Jod, Jhala, Bandish, Taans

A typical Hindustani instrumental or vocal performance unfolds in stages:

  • Alap: A slow, unmetered introduction exploring the raga's notes and phrases, gradually ascending.
  • Jod: A faster, rhythmic section with a fixed pulse but no tala, highlighting the *tanpura* drone.
  • Jhala: A climactic, fast strumming section with rapid note repetitions.
  • Bandish: A fixed composition in a specific tala (e.g., *vilambit* or *drut*), followed by improvisations (*taans*, *sargam*, *bol-bant*, *layakari*).
  • Taans: Fast, scalar runs that decorate the *bandish*.

4.1.2 Carnatic: Varnam, Raga Alapana, Kriti, Raga Tanam Pallavi

A Carnatic concert (*kutcheri*) begins with a Varnam (a composition that introduces the raga and tala), then proceeds with a series of Kritis with Raga Alapana preceding each. The *main* item is often the Ragam Tanam Pallavi (RTP), which lasts 30–60 minutes and showcases the performer's mastery. The concert ends with a Thillana (a rhythmic piece) and Mangalam (a benedictory song). Accompaniment includes violin, mridangam, and sometimes ghatam.

4.2 Improvisation techniques

4.2.1 Ornamentations (gamakas, meend, andolan)

*Gamakas* are oscillations, slides, and grace notes that give raga melodies their characteristic fluidity. Common types include *andolan* (slow oscillation), *khatka* (quick grace note), *murki* (clustered ornament), and *meend* (continuous slide from one note to another). In Carnatic music, each raga has prescribed *gamakas* that are integral to its identity, performed via finger movements on instruments or vocal *shrutis*.

4.2.2 Layakari (rhythmic manipulation)

*Layakari* refers to the art of rhythmic variation, including *tigun* (triplet division), *chaugun* (quadruple), and *sawaai* (one-and-a-quarter). Accompanists and soloists engage in *sawal-jawab* (question-answer) exchanges, demonstrating intricate cross-rhythms. In Carnatic music, *niraval* and *kalpanaswaram* allow rhythmic improvisation inside the *kriti* structure.

4.3 Role of the accompanist

The accompanist—violin in Carnatic music, or sarangi/harmonium in Hindustani—follows the soloist's *raga* exposition, mirroring phrases and providing harmonic support. The percussionist (mridangam or tabla) maintains the tala cycle and provides improvisational fills, responding to the soloist's *mukhdas* (cadential points). Accompanists must demonstrate deep *raga* knowledge and sensitivity to the singer's style.

5.1 Guru–shishya parampara (oral tradition)

The *guru–shishya parampara* (teacher-disciple lineage) is the traditional method of learning. Disciples live with the guru, absorbing technique, repertoire, and philosophy through imitation and repetition. Lessons include *sargam* practice, *varnam* singing, and *raga* analysis. This oral system preserves minute nuances and stylistic variants, though it can be time-intensive and exclusive.

5.2 Notation systems (Sargam, Staff notation adaptations)

Hindustani and Carnatic notations use *sargam* syllables (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni) with octave signs (dot above/below). The *Staff notation* (Western) has been adapted to indicate *meend* and *gamakas*, but Indian musicians primarily rely on oral memory. Bhatkhande's *Hindustani Sangeet Paddhati* and the *Sangita Sarvartha Saara Sangraham* (Carnatic) are major printed sources.

5.3 Institutionalisation in the 20th century

Universities and music colleges—such as the Bhatkhande Music Institute (Lucknow, 1926), the Madras Music Academy (1928), and the Faculty of Performing Arts, Banaras Hindu University—formalised curricula and examinations. This institutionalisation broadened access but sometimes diluted the guru–shishya intimacy. Contemporary teaching often combines private *guru* lessons with institutional study.

6.1 Hindustani masters

6.1.1 Dhrupad: Dagar brothers, Ustad Zia Mohiuddin Dagar

The Dagar brothers (Nasir Moinuddin and Nasir Aminuddin Dagar, 1920s–2000s) revived *dhrupad* vocal style after its decline, known for deep *alap* and *nom-tom* exploration. Ustad Zia Mohiuddin Dagar (1929–1990) developed a solo *rudra veena* style, expanding *dhrupad* instrumental performance.

6.1.2 Khayal: Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Pandit Bhimsen Joshi

Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan (c. 1902–1968) was a master of *khayal* and *thumri*, known for his powerful voice and emotive rendering. Pandit Bhimsen Joshi (1922–2011) popularised *khayal* among mass audiences, especially through the *Kirana* gharana's slow *vilambit* style and iconic *jugalbandi* performances.

6.1.3 Instrumentalists: Pandit Ravi Shankar (sitar), Ustad Ali Akbar Khan (sarod)

Pandit Ravi Shankar (1920–2012) brought sitar to global fame through collaborations with The Beatles and John Coltrane, and his *Shankar* style synthesised Maihar and Senia gharanas. Ustad Ali Akbar Khan (1922–2009) established the *sarod* as a major solo instrument, pioneering the *Maihar* style.

6.2 Carnatic masters

6.2.1 Vocalists: M. S. Subbulakshmi, K. J. Yesudas, T. M. Krishna

M. S. Subbulakshmi (1916–2004) was the first Indian musician to receive the Ramon Magsaysay award; her devotional renditions (e.g., *Meera Bhajans*) remain iconic. K. J. Yesudas (b. 1940) bridged classical and film music, winning Padma awards and performing globally. T. M. Krishna (b. 1976) is a contemporary vocalist known for experimental approaches and social activism.

6.2.2 Instrumentalists: D. K. Pattammal, N. Ramani (flute)

D. K. Pattammal (1919–2009) was a pioneering female Carnatic vocalist who also mastered the *violin* and *veena*. N. Ramani (1934–2015) developed the *bansuri* (bamboo flute) as a solo Carnatic instrument, expanding its repertoire and influence.

7.1 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage designation (2008)

In 2008, UNESCO inscribed "Indian classical music" on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, recognising its role in cultural identity and oral transmission. The designation encouraged conservation initiatives, including archiving rare *ragas* and supporting *guru–shishya* traditions.

7.2 Cross-cultural collaborations and fusion

From the 1960s onwards, Indian classical musicians collaborated with Western artists: Ravi Shankar's *West Meets East* albums (1967), *Shakti* (with John McLaughlin), and later *Indo-jazz* fusion (e.g., *Miles from India*). The *bhangra* and *film songs* also absorbed classical elements. Fusion projects continue with electronic music, jazz, and classical orchestras.

7.3 Contemporary preservation efforts and festivals

Major festivals—the *Sawai Gandharva Bhimsen Mahotsav* (Pune), *Chembai Sangeetholsavam* (Guruvayur), and *Thrissur Pooram* (Kerala)—showcase classical music. Organisations like the *Sangeet Natak Akademi* and *Spic Macay* promote youth engagement. Digital platforms (e.g., *Saregama*, *YouTube*) have globalised access. Nonetheless, the tradition faces challenges of commercialisation and reduced *gurukula* participation; efforts to catalog *ragas* and support living masters continue.