“The Analytical Language of John Wilkins” is a 1942 essay by Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges. Originally published in the journal *Sur*, it was later collected in *Otras Inquisiciones* (1952). The essay examines the 17th-century proposal for a universal language by the English clergyman John Wilkins, using the example of a fictional Chinese encyclopedia to critique the arbitrary nature of all human classification systems, and questioning the relationship between language, knowledge, and reality.

1 Background and Context

1.1 Life and Works of Jorge Luis Borges

Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986) was an Argentine short-story writer, essayist, poet, and translator, widely regarded as a key figure in 20th-century world literature. His work is characterized by its metaphysical themes, labyrinthine plots, and pervasive use of symbols such as mirrors, libraries, and encyclopedias. Borges served as the director of the National Library of Argentina from 1955 to 1973. His literary output, including works such as “The Library of Babel” and “The Garden of Forking Paths,” systematically explores the limits of reason, the nature of time, and the relationship between fiction and reality. His deep engagement with philosophy, theology, and linguistics profoundly informs his essays and stories.

1.2 The Essay’s Publication History

The essay first appeared in the August 1942 issue of *Sur*, a prominent Argentine literary magazine founded by Victoria Ocampo. It was later included in Borges’s 1952 collection *Otras Inquisiciones* (*Other Inquisitions*), a volume that assembles many of his most significant critical and philosophical essays. English translations followed in the latter half of the 20th century, introducing the work to a global audience, particularly through the 1964 edition of *Other Inquisitions* translated by Ruth L. C. Simms. The essay gained significant traction in international philosophical and literary circles following its citation by French philosopher Michel Foucault.

1.3 Borges’s Interest in Language and Classification

Borges’s fascination with language and classification systems stemmed from his work as a librarian and his extensive reading in philosophy, theology, and linguistics. He was particularly drawn to the history of encyclopedias, bestiaries, and universal languages. His oeuvre frequently questions the human impulse to impose order on the chaos of the universe. For Borges, taxonomies—whether in libraries, scientific treatises, or theological doctrines—reveal more about the culture constructing them than about the nature of reality itself. This skeptical approach underlies the central argument of “The Analytical Language of John Wilkins.”

2 Summary of the Essay

2.1 The Fictional Language of John Wilkins

Borges summarizes the work of the 17th-century English clergyman John Wilkins, who proposed a universal “real character” and philosophical language in his 1668 treatise, *Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language*. Wilkins aimed to create a system where each symbol directly corresponded to a specific concept or thing, thereby bypassing the ambiguities of natural languages. Borges describes the ambition and logic of Wilkins’s scheme, which attempted to classify all of reality into a set of forty fundamental genera, further subdivided into species. Borges notes that while the project is impressive, it ultimately fails because its categories are arbitrary.

2.2 The Chinese Encyclopedia and Its Taxonomy

The most celebrated passage of the essay describes a “certain Chinese encyclopedia” titled the *Celestial Emporium of Benevolent Knowledge*. Borges attributes this work to the German sinologist Franz Kuhn. The encyclopedia divides all animals into fourteen bizarre categories: “(a) those that belong to the Emperor, (b) embalmed ones, (c) those that are trained, (d) suckling pigs, (e) mermaids, (f) fabulous ones, (g) stray dogs, (h) those that are included in this classification, (i) those that tremble as if they were mad, (j) innumerable ones, (k) those drawn with a very fine camel’s hair brush, (l) others, (m) those that have just broken a flower vase, (n) those that from a long way off look like flies.” The humor and absurdity of this list serve as the essay’s central example.

2.3 The Critique of Universal Languages

Borges argues that Wilkins’s universal language—and by extension, all such projects of universal taxonomy—is fundamentally flawed. The problem lies not in the ambition but in the impossibility of definitively classifying the universe. Borges points out that Wilkins’s own divisions, such as splitting stones into “common” and “precious,” are no less arbitrary than the categories of the fictional Chinese encyclopedia. The essay asserts that no system of language can fully capture the nature of reality.

2.4 The Arbitrariness of Classification

Borges expands his critique to encompass all classification systems. He suggests that taxonomies are provisional inventions, not discoveries of a natural order. He notes that we are unaware that we are trapped within our own systems of thought. The essay implies that the very act of naming and categorizing is a form of fiction-making. The arbitrary nature of categories demonstrates the gap between human language and the infinite, ungraspable reality of the universe.

3 Themes and Analysis

3.1 Language and Reality

A central theme of the essay is the relationship between language and reality. Borges challenges the classical assumption that language can transparently represent the world. Through the juxtaposition of Wilkins’s rational project and the Chinese encyclopedia’s chaotic taxonomy, he demonstrates that all languages impose a preexisting conceptual grid onto the world. Reality, in Borges’s view, is resistant to such complete encapsulation; language shapes our perception of reality rather than simply reflecting it.

3.2 The Limits of Human Knowledge

The essay functions as a skeptical meditation on epistemology. Borges argues that human knowledge is inherently limited and structured by the categories we inherit or invent. The “Celestial Emporium of Benevolent Knowledge” is a radical illustration of an alternative, but equally valid, ordering of the world. By creating a taxonomy that defies Western logic, Borges reveals the contingency of our own knowledge systems and questions the possibility of achieving a comprehensive understanding of the universe.

3.3 Humor and Irony in Borges’s Prose

The essay is notable for its dry, intellectual humor and irony. The absurdity of the Chinese encyclopedia’s categories is genuinely comic, but the humor serves a serious philosophical purpose. The ironic tone allows Borges to critique grand philosophical ambitions without resorting to open ridicule. The deadpan style in which he presents the “facts” of the encyclopedia enhances the satirical effect, underscoring the arbitrariness of all such projects while maintaining a tone of scholarly detachment.

3.4 Intertextuality and References

Borges’s essay is densely intertextual. It references real figures (John Wilkins, Leibniz, Franz Kuhn), real works (the *Essay towards a Real Character*, the *I Ching*), and fictional works (the *Celestial Emporium of Benevolent Knowledge*). This blending of fact and fiction is a hallmark of Borges’s style. The references create a complex network of allusions that blurs the line between scholarship and invention, forcing the reader to question the authority of texts and the nature of intellectual history.

4 Critical Reception and Influence

4.1 Initial Reception in Literary Circles

Upon its initial publication in *Sur*, the essay was recognized as a brilliant and erudite piece of criticism. In the Spanish-speaking literary world, it was admired for its intellectual playfulness and its deep engagement with philosophical history. It was seen as a prime example of Borges’s ability to transform obscure scholarly material into provocative and accessible commentary.

4.2 Influence on Postmodernism and Philosophy

The essay’s influence grew exponentially in the latter half of the 20th century, becoming a foundational text for postmodern thought. Michel Foucault famously credited Borges’s Chinese encyclopedia with inspiring his seminal work *The Order of Things* (1966). Foucault wrote that the passage shattered his assumptions about the fundamental codes of a culture. The essay is now a standard reference in discussions of epistemology, deconstruction, and the critique of grand narratives, influencing figures such as Gilles Deleuze, Jean Baudrillard, and Richard Rorty.

4.3 Modern Interpretations

4.3.1 In Linguistics

In linguistics, the essay is frequently cited in debates regarding linguistic relativity and categorization. George Lakoff, in his work *Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things*, uses Borges’s taxonomy as an example of the ways in which different cultures structure categories. The essay serves as a cautionary tale against assuming that the categories of one’s own language are natural or universal.

4.3.2 In Library Science

Within library and information science, the essay is a touchstone for discussions about the philosophy of classification. It highlights the fragility and cultural bias inherent in systems like the Dewey Decimal Classification or the Library of Congress Subject Headings. Borges’s work is used to encourage critical reflection on how knowledge organization systems shape access to information and reinforce institutional power structures.

The essay has permeated popular culture, particularly through the meme and online forum culture of the early 21st century. The “Celestial Emporium of Benevolent Knowledge” is frequently cited in discussions of absurdist humor, niche internet taxonomies, and the arbitrary nature of social classifications. The phrase “that from a long way off look like flies” has become a shorthand for esoteric or illogical categorization. The essay continues to inspire artists, writers, and programmers working with information architecture and tagging systems (folksonomies).

5 Connections to Other Works

5.1 Borges’s Other Essays (e.g., “Kafka and His Precursors”)

“The Analytical Language of John Wilkins” shares thematic and structural similarities with other Borges essays, most notably “Kafka and His Precursors.” Both essays challenge linear, teleological views of history and literature. Both construct a fictional genealogy or lineage to make a philosophical point. The method of using a surprising, heterogeneous list (Kafka’s precursors, the Chinese encyclopedia’s animals) is a recurring Borgesian technique for undermining conventional order.

5.2 The Historical John Wilkins and His *Real Character*

The historical John Wilkins (1614–1672) was a prominent English clergyman and a founder of the Royal Society. His *Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language* (1668) was a serious, systematic attempt to create a universal language based on a logical classification of knowledge. Borges provides a summary of Wilkins’s system, accurately noting its division into genera and species. However, Borges treats Wilkins’s work not merely as an historical curiosity but as a philosophical exemplar of the human desire for an unambiguous, perfect language.

5.3 Relation to Michel Foucault’s *The Order of Things*

The relationship between Borges’s essay and Foucault’s *The Order of Things* is one of the most famous instances of intellectual influence in 20th-century thought. Foucault directly cites Borges in his preface, stating that the “Chinese encyclopedia” shattered his own thinking. Foucault uses Borges’s taxonomy to introduce his concept of the “episteme,” the underlying unconscious structure that governs the order of knowledge in a given historical period. For Foucault, Borges’s work exposes the limits of Western rationalism and opens the door for an “archaeology” of the human sciences.

6 Further Reading and References

6.1 Primary Sources

  • Borges, Jorge Luis. *Other Inquisitions, 1937–1952*. Translated by Ruth L. C. Simms. University of Texas Press, 1964.
  • Borges, Jorge Luis. *Otras Inquisiciones*. Emecé Editores, 1952.
  • Wilkins, John. *An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language*. 1668.

6.2 Secondary Scholarship

  • Foucault, Michel. *The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences*. Preface. Pantheon Books, 1970.
  • Lakoff, George. *Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind*. University of Chicago Press, 1987.
  • Merrell, Floyd. *Unthinking Thinking: Jorge Luis Borges, Mathematics, and the New Physics*. Purdue University Press, 1991.

6.3 Online Resources

  • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Entry on Jorge Luis Borges.
  • *The Public Domain Review.* Articles on John Wilkins and the history of universal languages.
  • Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Entry on Borges’s Philosophical Ideas.