1 Classification of pesticides
Pesticides are commonly grouped according to the organism they are intended to control, their chemical composition, and the way they act on pests. These classification systems overlap, since a single product may fit more than one category. For example, a compound may be a herbicide by use, a synthetic organic by structure, and a systemic agent by mode of action. Classification is useful in understanding practical performance, toxicity, and regulatory treatment.
1.1 By target organism
This approach divides pesticides according to the pest group they are designed to suppress. It is the most familiar classification in agriculture and public health because it reflects the intended use directly.
1.1.1 Insecticides
Insecticides are used against insects in their larval or adult stages. They are applied to protect crops, stored foods, livestock, and human environments from feeding, disease transmission, or contamination. Many insecticides act on the nervous system, although other mechanisms also occur.
1.1.2 Herbicides
Herbicides suppress unwanted plants, especially weeds competing with crops for light, water, and nutrients. Some are selective and damage only certain plant types, while others are nonselective and affect a broad range of vegetation. Their utility depends on timing, dosage, and crop tolerance.
1.1.3 Fungicides
Fungicides are intended to prevent or reduce fungal growth on plants, seeds, and stored materials. They may be protectant agents that remain on the surface or systemic compounds that move within plant tissues. Their use helps limit plant diseases that reduce yield and quality.
1.1.4 Rodenticides
Rodenticides target rodents such as rats and mice, which can damage food stores, structures, and equipment and may also spread disease. Some products act as acute poisons, while others work more slowly by interfering with blood clotting or metabolism. Their use requires careful placement to avoid accidental exposure.
1.1.5 Nematicides
Nematicides are used to control plant-parasitic nematodes in soil and root zones. These organisms can injure roots and reduce water and nutrient uptake. Because nematicides may be toxic and persistent, they are often applied with particular attention to soil conditions and timing.
1.2 By chemical structure
Chemical structure strongly influences persistence, toxicity, solubility, and the type of biological target affected. This category is important in chemistry because compounds with similar structures often share related properties and risks.
1.2.1 Organochlorines
Organochlorines are chlorinated organic compounds known for stability and lipid solubility. Some historical examples became notable for persistence in the environment and accumulation in tissues. Their long environmental lifetimes led to restricted use in many settings.
1.2.2 Organophosphates
Organophosphates contain phosphorus and are often associated with inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. They include many insecticides with rapid action. Their effectiveness is balanced by concerns about acute toxicity and exposure control.
1.2.3 Carbamates
Carbamates are chemically related to organophosphates in their ability to affect cholinesterase enzymes, though their interactions are generally more reversible. They have been used in insect control and in some cases for plant protection. Their properties vary widely across the group.
1.2.4 Pyrethroids
Pyrethroids are synthetic analogues of natural pyrethrins derived from chrysanthemum flowers. They are valued for strong insecticidal activity and relatively low use rates. Many act on nerve cell sodium channels and are widely used in agriculture and household products.
1.2.5 Neonicotinoids
Neonicotinoids are a class of insecticides that act on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. They are often systemic, allowing uptake by plants and distribution through tissues. Their effectiveness against sap-feeding insects has made them important in seed and soil treatments.
1.3 By mode of action
Mode of action refers to the biological process a pesticide disrupts. This classification is central to resistance management, because products with similar mechanisms may lose effectiveness in related ways.
1.3.1 Contact pesticides
Contact pesticides act when the pest is directly exposed to the treated surface or spray deposit. They are effective only where the material reaches the organism. Coverage and timing are therefore important for performance.
1.3.2 Systemic pesticides
Systemic pesticides are absorbed by plants or organisms and move within tissues. They can protect new growth and reach pests that feed internally or from protected locations. Their distribution depends on the compound’s chemistry and the biology of the host.
1.3.3 Stomach poisons
Stomach poisons are effective when ingested by the pest. They are common in products designed for chewing insects, rodents, or bait formulations. Success depends on the pest’s feeding behavior.
1.3.4 Fumigants
Fumigants are volatile substances that act as gases in enclosed spaces or soil. They can penetrate hiding places and are useful for stored products, structures, and certain soil treatments. Their application requires strict control because inhalation exposure can be hazardous.
2 Chemical properties and formulation
A pesticide’s chemical properties determine how it behaves during storage, mixing, application, and environmental exposure. Formulation converts the active ingredient into a usable product that can be measured, dispersed, and delivered efficiently. Additives are often included to improve performance or stability.
2.1 Active ingredients
The active ingredient is the component responsible for pesticidal activity. Its chemical identity largely defines the product’s potency, selectivity, and toxicity profile. Minor impurities or degradation products may also influence behavior.
2.1.1 Purity and stability
High purity helps ensure predictable activity and consistent dosing. Stability determines whether the compound remains effective during storage and use. Heat, moisture, light, and oxygen can degrade sensitive ingredients.
2.1.2 Solubility and volatility
Solubility affects how a pesticide dissolves in water, oil, or plant tissues. Volatility determines how readily it evaporates, influencing fumigation potential and loss to the air. These properties also affect formulation choice and environmental movement.
2.2 Formulation types
Formulations are prepared forms of pesticides designed for safe handling and effective delivery. They influence application ease, persistence, and the distribution of the active ingredient after use.
2.2.1 Emulsifiable concentrates
Emulsifiable concentrates are liquid formulations in which the active ingredient is dissolved in a solvent and made mixable with water using surfactants. They are convenient for spraying and often provide uniform coverage. However, they may include organic solvents that require careful handling.
2.2.2 Wettable powders
Wettable powders are dry, finely ground formulations that disperse in water when mixed. They can be useful for products that are not easily dissolved. Good agitation is often needed to maintain an even suspension.
2.2.3 Granules
Granules consist of pesticide-coated particles that are applied directly to soil or surfaces. They reduce drift and can provide localized release. Their use is common for soil pests and some lawn applications.
2.2.4 Microencapsulated formulations
Microencapsulated formulations enclose the active ingredient in small protective capsules. This design can slow release, reduce odor, and improve safety or persistence. It may also limit immediate exposure to light or air.
2.3 Adjuvants and additives
Adjuvants and additives are nonactive substances included to enhance handling, stability, or biological performance. They do not provide pesticidal action by themselves but can significantly influence product behavior.
2.3.1 Surfactants
Surfactants lower surface tension and improve spreading, wetting, and penetration. They help sprays coat leaves or other surfaces more evenly. In some cases, they also improve uptake by the target organism.
2.3.2 Solvents
Solvents dissolve the active ingredient or aid in its dispersion. Their choice affects viscosity, sprayability, and compatibility with other components. Solvent properties may also influence flammability and toxicity.
2.3.3 Stabilizers
Stabilizers slow chemical breakdown during storage or after application. They may protect against oxidation, light exposure, or hydrolysis. Their presence can extend shelf life and preserve product potency.
3 Mechanisms of action
Pesticides act through a limited number of biochemical and physiological pathways. Understanding these mechanisms helps explain selectivity, resistance, and toxic effects on non-target organisms.
3.1 Nervous system disruption
Many pesticides interfere with nerve signaling, producing paralysis or death in target organisms. This category includes some of the most widely used insecticides.
3.1.1 Acetylcholinesterase inhibition
Acetylcholinesterase inhibition prevents the breakdown of acetylcholine at nerve synapses. The resulting overstimulation disrupts muscle control and neural function. Organophosphates and carbamates are well-known examples of compounds that use this mechanism.
3.1.2 Sodium channel interference
Some insecticides alter the opening and closing of voltage-gated sodium channels in nerve membranes. This causes repeated nerve firing and eventual loss of coordinated movement. Pyrethroids are a major group associated with this mode of action.
3.1.3 GABA receptor effects
Certain pesticides interfere with gamma-aminobutyric acid, or GABA, signaling, which normally reduces neural excitation. Blocking or altering this pathway can lead to convulsions and failure of normal nerve regulation. The mechanism is important in several insecticidal classes.
3.2 Photosynthesis and plant growth inhibition
Herbicides often target plant-specific biochemical processes, making them useful for selective weed control. These pathways are absent or different in animals, which contributes to selectivity.
3.2.1 Electron transport disruption
Some herbicides block electron transport in photosynthetic systems, preventing plants from converting light energy into chemical energy. This leads to reduced growth, tissue damage, and eventual death. Symptoms may appear as chlorosis or necrosis.
3.2.2 Hormone mimicry
Certain herbicides imitate plant hormones and trigger abnormal growth responses. This disrupts normal development and can cause twisting, overgrowth, or failure of vascular function. Selective broadleaf herbicides often rely on this principle.
3.3 Metabolic and cellular damage
Some pesticides act by broadly damaging cell structures or interfering with metabolism. These effects may be less target-specific but can still be highly effective.
3.3.1 Membrane disruption
Membrane-disrupting agents damage cell boundaries, leading to leakage of cellular contents and loss of homeostasis. Such injury can rapidly kill fungi, bacteria, or plant tissue. The effect is often associated with contact activity.
3.3.2 Enzyme inhibition
Many pesticides work by inhibiting enzymes required for growth, detoxification, or energy production. When these biochemical steps stop, the pest can no longer maintain essential functions. The specificity of enzyme targeting often determines selectivity.
4 Synthesis and production
Pesticide manufacturing combines organic synthesis, process engineering, purification, and quality assurance. Industrial production must maintain reproducibility while minimizing hazards and waste.
4.1 Industrial manufacturing
Large-scale pesticide manufacture begins with feedstocks and intermediates obtained from chemical supply chains. The process is designed for efficiency, consistency, and safe handling of reactive materials.
4.1.1 Raw materials and intermediates
Raw materials may include petrochemical derivatives, inorganic reagents, and specialized building blocks. Intermediates are often prepared in separate stages before final assembly. Supply quality can affect final purity and yield.
4.1.2 Reaction pathways
Reaction pathways are selected to achieve the desired molecular structure with acceptable cost and safety. They may involve substitution, oxidation, esterification, or condensation steps. Process design seeks to reduce byproducts and simplify purification.
4.2 Quality control
Quality control ensures that the product meets specifications for potency, purity, and stability. It is essential for predictable field performance and regulatory compliance.
4.2.1 Assay methods
Assay methods measure the amount of active ingredient present in a formulation. Analytical techniques such as chromatography are commonly used. These tests confirm that the product contains the intended concentration.
4.2.2 Impurity profiling
Impurity profiling identifies unwanted compounds formed during synthesis or storage. Some impurities are chemically related to the active ingredient, while others arise from side reactions or degradation. Their presence may affect safety and shelf life.
4.3 Scale-up and process safety
Moving from laboratory synthesis to industrial production introduces challenges in heat transfer, mixing, and containment. Process safety is therefore a central concern.
4.3.1 Reaction exotherms
Some reactions release heat rapidly and may become difficult to control at larger scale. Careful temperature management and staged reagent addition help prevent runaway conditions. Engineering controls are important where reactive intermediates are used.
4.3.2 Waste management
Manufacturing generates solvent residues, off-specification material, and treatment waste. Responsible management reduces pollution and improves workplace safety. Recycling and recovery methods may be used when feasible.
5 Application and use
Pesticides are applied in many contexts beyond crop production. Their methods of use depend on the target pest, the treated surface, and the desired duration of control.
5.1 Agricultural applications
Agriculture is the largest and most visible setting for pesticide use. Products may protect growing plants, harvested commodities, or stored materials.
5.1.1 Crop protection
Crop protection aims to prevent pest damage during the growing season. Pesticides may be applied preventively or only when infestation reaches a certain threshold. Timing and dosage are crucial to maximize benefit and limit residues.
5.1.2 Post-harvest treatment
Post-harvest treatments help preserve grains, fruits, vegetables, and other commodities after harvest. They may reduce infestation, decay, or spoilage during transport and storage. Controlled application is important to maintain product quality.
5.2 Non-agricultural applications
Pesticides also support disease control, sanitation, and infrastructure protection in settings outside farming. These uses often involve lower volumes but may require precision and safety oversight.
5.2.1 Public health pest control
Public health pest control focuses on vectors such as mosquitoes and other organisms that transmit disease. Measures may include insecticides, larvicides, and space treatments. The goal is to reduce pest populations in inhabited areas.
5.2.2 Household pest management
Household products are used against ants, cockroaches, flies, termites, and similar pests. These formulations are designed for consumer convenience and clear labeling. Safe storage is especially important in domestic environments.
5.2.3 Industrial and structural pest control
Industrial and structural pest control protects warehouses, food-processing sites, and buildings from infestation. It may involve surface treatments, bait systems, or fumigation. The aim is to preserve structural integrity and product hygiene.
5.3 Application methods
Application methods influence coverage, exposure, and effectiveness. The chosen technique depends on the formulation and the biology of the pest.
5.3.1 Spraying
Spraying distributes liquid formulations over foliage, soil, or surfaces. It is flexible and widely used for many pest types. Equipment design affects droplet size, drift, and deposition.
5.3.2 Soil treatment
Soil treatment places pesticide in or on the ground to affect root-zone pests, soil fungi, or weeds. It can be applied before planting or during crop growth. Soil properties often alter persistence and movement.
5.3.3 Seed treatment
Seed treatment coats seeds with pesticides before planting. This can protect seedlings during early development and reduce the need for later applications. Treated seed must be handled carefully to avoid misuse.
5.3.4 Baiting and fumigation
Baiting attracts pests to a toxic food source, making it useful for rodents and some insects. Fumigation uses gaseous agents in enclosed spaces or soil. Both methods can be highly effective when conditions are appropriate.
6 Safety and toxicology
Pesticides may pose hazards to workers, users, consumers, and the environment if misused or overexposed. Toxicology evaluates how substances enter the body, how they act, and how risks can be reduced.
6.1 Human exposure
Exposure may occur during manufacture, transport, mixing, application, or contact with treated surfaces. The route of entry strongly influences the type and severity of effect.
6.1.1 Inhalation
Inhalation exposure can occur with sprays, dusts, vapors, or fumigants. The lungs provide a rapid pathway into the bloodstream. Ventilation and respiratory protection help limit risk.
6.1.2 Dermal contact
Skin exposure is common during handling and application. Some pesticides are absorbed through intact skin, while others irritate or damage tissue locally. Protective clothing can reduce contact.
6.1.3 Ingestion
Ingestion may happen accidentally through contaminated hands, food, or water. Because many pesticides are highly active at low doses, accidental swallowing can be serious. Proper storage and hygiene are important preventive measures.
6.2 Acute and chronic toxicity
Toxic effects may appear quickly after exposure or develop over longer periods. The nature of the outcome depends on dose, duration, and the specific compound.
6.2.1 Neurotoxicity
Neurotoxicity refers to harmful effects on the nervous system, such as tremors, weakness, confusion, or paralysis. It is especially associated with compounds that interfere with neurotransmission. Severity ranges from mild symptoms to life-threatening poisoning.
6.2.2 Carcinogenicity
Some substances are evaluated for potential to cause cancer after long-term exposure. The assessment depends on laboratory studies, epidemiological evidence, and exposure conditions. Regulatory decisions often consider both hazard and realistic risk.
6.2.3 Endocrine disruption
Endocrine disruption involves interference with hormone systems that regulate growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Effects may be subtle and depend on timing of exposure. Research in this area continues to refine understanding of dose and response.
6.3 Risk assessment
Risk assessment combines toxicology with exposure analysis to estimate the likelihood of harm. It supports safe use instructions, regulatory limits, and worker protection practices.
6.3.1 Dose-response evaluation
Dose-response evaluation examines how effects change as exposure increases. It helps identify thresholds, reference doses, or points of concern. This process is central to setting protective standards.
6.3.2 Exposure limits
Exposure limits define acceptable levels in the workplace or in residues on food. They are established using toxicological data and safety factors. Limits guide label directions and enforcement.
6.3.3 Protective equipment
Protective equipment includes gloves, masks, coveralls, goggles, and other barriers. Such equipment reduces direct contact and inhalation exposure. Proper fit and maintenance are important for effectiveness.
6.4 Poisoning and first aid
Prompt recognition and response can reduce the severity of pesticide poisoning. Emergency procedures depend on the compound and exposure route.
6.4.1 Symptoms of exposure
Symptoms may include nausea, headache, dizziness, sweating, eye irritation, breathing difficulty, or muscle weakness. Severe cases can involve convulsions or loss of consciousness. Early signs often vary by pesticide class.
6.4.2 Emergency treatment
Emergency treatment focuses on removing the person from exposure, decontaminating skin or clothing, and obtaining medical care. Supportive treatment may be necessary in serious cases. Product labels and safety data provide important response information.
7 Environmental fate and impact
After application, pesticides may break down, move through air or water, or interact with living organisms. Their environmental behavior influences persistence, effectiveness, and ecological consequences.
7.1 Degradation and persistence
The rate at which a pesticide degrades determines how long it remains active in the environment. Some compounds persist for extended periods, while others break down rapidly.
7.1.1 Photolysis
Photolysis is breakdown caused by sunlight. It can reduce surface residues on plants, soil, or water. Compounds that are light-sensitive may lose activity more quickly outdoors.
7.1.2 Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is chemical decomposition in the presence of water. Soil moisture, pH, and temperature can affect the rate. Some formulations are designed to resist hydrolytic degradation until they reach the target site.
7.1.3 Biodegradation
Biodegradation occurs when microorganisms metabolize pesticide molecules. It is often a major pathway of environmental removal. Soil composition and microbial communities influence how rapidly it proceeds.
7.2 Transport in the environment
Pesticides may move away from the application site through water, air, or soil processes. This transport can lead to exposure in unintended locations.
7.2.1 Runoff
Runoff carries pesticides over the land surface, often during rainfall or irrigation. It can move residues into drains, streams, and ponds. Erosion and poor field management can increase the problem.
7.2.2 Leaching
Leaching is downward movement through soil with percolating water. It may contaminate groundwater if the substance is mobile and persistent. Soil texture and rainfall strongly affect leaching potential.
7.2.3 Volatilization
Volatilization is loss to the atmosphere as vapor. It is more likely for volatile compounds and under warm conditions. Airborne movement can reduce local effectiveness and spread residues beyond the treated area.
7.3 Effects on non-target organisms
Pesticides may affect organisms other than the intended pest. Such effects vary with exposure level, formulation, and environmental persistence.
7.3.1 Pollinators
Pollinators can be harmed directly by contact or indirectly through contaminated nectar, pollen, or dust. Effects may include disorientation, mortality, or reduced foraging. Protection of pollinator habitats is a major consideration in application planning.
7.3.2 Aquatic life
Aquatic organisms may be exposed through runoff, drift, or contaminated sediments. Fish, amphibians, and invertebrates can be sensitive to small concentrations. Water quality management helps reduce risk.
7.3.3 Soil microorganisms
Soil microorganisms contribute to nutrient cycling and organic matter breakdown. Pesticide exposure may alter microbial communities or activity. Changes can affect soil fertility and decomposition processes.
7.3.4 Birds and wildlife
Birds and other wildlife may encounter pesticides through contaminated food, water, or habitat. Acute poisoning and sublethal effects are possible in some settings. Secondary exposure may occur when predators consume poisoned prey.
8 Resistance and management
Repeated pesticide use can select for resistant pest populations. Resistance management aims to slow this process and preserve the usefulness of available control methods.
8.1 Evolution of resistance
Resistance evolves when surviving pests pass on traits that reduce pesticide sensitivity. Over time, these traits may become common in a population.
8.1.1 Target-site resistance
Target-site resistance involves changes at the biochemical site where the pesticide acts. These alterations reduce binding or interference by the compound. Such changes can produce strong resistance.
8.1.2 Metabolic resistance
Metabolic resistance occurs when pests detoxify or break down the pesticide more efficiently. Enzyme activity may increase through mutation or selection. This mechanism can affect multiple related compounds.
8.1.3 Behavioral resistance
Behavioral resistance develops when pests avoid treated areas, baits, or exposure pathways. Changes in feeding or movement can reduce effectiveness without altering physiology directly. This form of resistance can be difficult to detect at first.
8.2 Integrated pest management
Integrated pest management combines multiple control strategies to reduce reliance on chemicals alone. It emphasizes monitoring, prevention, and targeted intervention.
8.2.1 Biological control
Biological control uses natural enemies such as predators, parasites, or pathogens to suppress pests. It can reduce pest populations without constant chemical input. Success depends on ecological compatibility and careful management.
8.2.2 Crop rotation
Crop rotation changes the plants grown in a field from season to season. This can disrupt pest life cycles and reduce buildup in soil or residues. It is widely used as a preventive strategy.
8.2.3 Mechanical control
Mechanical control includes physical methods such as trapping, cultivation, barriers, and removal of infested material. These techniques can lower pest pressure and complement other approaches. They are often valuable in small-scale or targeted settings.
8.2.4 Chemical rotation
Chemical rotation alternates pesticides with different modes of action. The goal is to reduce selection pressure for resistance. Rotation is most effective when combined with other integrated practices.
8.3 Resistance monitoring
Monitoring tracks changes in pest susceptibility over time. It helps identify resistance early and guides management decisions.
8.3.1 Bioassays
Bioassays test pest response to controlled pesticide exposure under laboratory or semi-field conditions. They provide comparative measures of sensitivity. Results can reveal shifts before field failure becomes severe.
8.3.2 Field surveillance
Field surveillance observes pest control performance in real settings. It may include sampling, efficacy checks, and reports from growers or technicians. These data support practical adjustments in management programs.
9 Regulation and standards
Pesticides are subject to legal and technical standards that govern approval, labeling, residues, and laboratory procedures. Regulation aims to ensure that products are effective and that risks are reasonably controlled.
9.1 Registration and approval
Before sale or use, many pesticide products must undergo registration or equivalent authorization. The process generally requires evidence of efficacy and safety.
9.1.1 Efficacy testing
Efficacy testing demonstrates that the product works against the intended pest under defined conditions. Trials may be conducted in laboratories, greenhouses, or fields. Regulators use these data to assess whether claims are supported.
9.1.2 Safety evaluation
Safety evaluation examines hazards to users, consumers, wildlife, and the environment. It includes toxicology, exposure estimates, and environmental fate studies. The goal is to identify conditions under which the product can be used responsibly.
9.2 Labeling and residue limits
Labels provide instructions for correct use, while residue limits define acceptable amounts remaining on food or feed. Together they support safe application and trade.
9.2.1 Maximum residue limits
Maximum residue limits are the highest legally permitted concentrations of pesticide residues in food or feed. They are established using risk-based assessments and dietary exposure estimates. Compliance helps ensure consumer protection.
9.2.2 Pre-harvest intervals
Pre-harvest intervals specify the minimum time between application and harvest. This delay allows residues to decline to acceptable levels. The interval varies by crop, product, and use pattern.
9.3 International guidelines
International standards support consistency in testing, residue evaluation, and laboratory practice. They facilitate communication among regulators and producers.
9.3.1 Codex standards
Codex standards provide internationally recognized guidance for food safety and residue limits. They are used as references in trade and regulation. Such standards help harmonize expectations across jurisdictions.
9.3.2 Good laboratory practice
Good laboratory practice sets requirements for study conduct, documentation, and quality assurance. It improves reliability and traceability of test results. Compliance is especially important in regulatory submissions.
10 History and development
The history of pesticides reflects a shift from simple natural substances to highly engineered compounds and, more recently, to more selective and environmentally conscious approaches. Development has been shaped by advances in chemistry, biology, and agriculture.
10.1 Early pest control substances
Before synthetic chemistry became dominant, pest control relied on natural minerals, plant extracts, and other simple compounds. These materials were often effective but variable in performance.
10.1.1 Sulfur and botanical extracts
Sulfur has long been used to suppress fungal disease and certain pests. Botanical extracts, including plant-derived oils and alkaloids, provided early insecticidal and repellent effects. Their availability made them important in preindustrial agriculture.
10.1.2 Arsenicals and inorganic compounds
Arsenical compounds and other inorganic substances were among the first widely used chemical pesticides. They could be effective but were often hazardous and nonselective. Their limitations helped drive the search for safer alternatives.
10.2 Modern pesticide chemistry
Twentieth-century chemistry produced many synthetic compounds with improved potency, specificity, and ease of production. This period transformed pest control in agriculture and public health.
10.2.1 Synthetic organic pesticides
Synthetic organic pesticides expanded rapidly with advances in industrial chemistry. They included insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides with tailored structures and properties. These products often offered stronger and more predictable performance than older materials.
10.2.2 Selective and low-toxicity agents
Later development emphasized selectivity toward pests and lower risk to humans and beneficial organisms. Improved design considered metabolism, persistence, and application patterns. This trend also supported more precise use rates.
10.3 Research trends
Current research focuses on sustainability, reduced hazard, and improved specificity. Chemistry, molecular biology, and environmental science all contribute to new directions.
10.3.1 Biopesticides
Biopesticides are derived from natural organisms, extracts, or biologically based processes. They may include microbial agents, pheromones, or plant-derived substances. Their appeal lies in specificity and potential environmental compatibility.
10.3.2 Green chemistry approaches
Green chemistry seeks to reduce waste, toxicity, and energy use in pesticide design and production. Strategies include safer solvents, more efficient syntheses, and degradable formulations. These approaches aim to maintain efficacy while lowering environmental burden.