Open educational resources

1 Definition and scope

Open educational resources are instructional and scholarly materials that are made available for teaching, learning, and research with permissions that permit free use and adaptation. The term usually refers to resources distributed under open licenses, though some materials enter the category through deliberate public release or unrestricted sharing.

OER are used in formal schooling, higher education, workplace training, and informal learning. Their scope is broad, ranging from a single worksheet to a complete course. A defining feature is not simply free access, but the ability to copy, alter, and share the material within the terms of its license or public status.

1.1 Core meaning

The core meaning of OER lies in openness of permission. Users are generally allowed to read, download, save, revise, and redistribute the material without seeking individual approval from the creator. This distinguishes OER from ordinary online resources that may be free to view but remain legally restricted.

In practice, OER are intended to lower barriers to education and to encourage reuse in different learning settings. They support collaborative authoring, since instructors and learners can build on existing material rather than starting from scratch.

1.2 Types of educational materials

OER can appear in many forms and may be designed for different age groups, disciplines, and teaching methods. The category includes both static and interactive resources, as well as materials intended for teachers, students, and independent learners.

1.2.1 Text-based resources

Text-based OER include textbooks, handouts, syllabi, lecture notes, worksheets, manuals, and study guides. These materials are often the most easily adapted, since users can revise wording, add examples, or rearrange sections to fit local needs.

Open textbooks are among the best-known examples. They are commonly used to replace or supplement commercial textbooks and may be updated more frequently because they are not tied to a single print edition.

1.2.2 Multimedia resources

Multimedia OER include videos, audio lectures, slides, images, diagrams, and animations. They may demonstrate procedures, explain concepts visually, or support learners with different preferences and needs.

Such materials are often especially useful in subjects that rely on demonstration, such as science, language learning, and technical training. Their usefulness increases when captions, transcripts, and descriptive text are included.

1.2.3 Interactive learning tools

Interactive OER include quizzes, simulations, games, discussion prompts, and adaptive exercises. These resources allow learners to practice skills, test understanding, and receive feedback.

They are frequently used in digital learning environments and may be embedded in course platforms. Because they can be modified, instructors often tailor them to local curricula or learning objectives.

1.3 Distinction from other educational resources

OER differ from materials that are merely free of charge. A resource may be free to access, yet still prohibit copying, editing, or redistribution. By contrast, OER are defined by permissions that permit broader educational reuse.

They also differ from licensed course content distributed only within a closed system. OER are intended to be openly shared beyond a single institution or platform, making them more portable across schools, regions, and teaching contexts.

2 History

The OER movement developed from earlier efforts to share knowledge more openly through educational publishing, public-domain materials, and collaborative online communities. Its growth has been closely tied to digital communication, which made copying and distribution faster and less expensive.

2.1 Early open content initiatives

Before the OER label became common, educators and organizations already circulated free course materials, public lectures, and openly shared lesson plans. Libraries, public broadcasters, and academic institutions contributed to this tradition by making educational content widely available.

Early web-based repositories also helped establish a culture of sharing. As the internet expanded, more instructors began posting syllabi, assignments, and reference materials for others to use.

2.2 Development of the OER movement

The modern OER movement emerged as educators and policy advocates began to emphasize not only access, but legal permission to reuse and adapt materials. This shift brought together concerns about affordability, educational equity, and collaborative knowledge production.

Major initiatives encouraged institutions to release teaching materials openly and to support communities of practice around adaptation. Over time, OER became associated with open education more broadly, including pedagogical approaches that encourage students to participate in knowledge creation.

2.3 Influence of digital technologies

Digital technologies transformed OER by making it practical to distribute materials globally at low cost. Online platforms, content management systems, and searchable repositories allowed resources to be shared instantly and updated efficiently.

These technologies also made remixing simpler. Instructors could combine text, audio, video, and interactive elements into flexible packages that could be adjusted for different courses, languages, and educational levels.

2.4 Growth of open licensing

A major milestone in the history of OER was the rise of standardized open licenses. These licenses provided a clear legal framework for reuse, helping creators specify what others could do with their work.

Open licensing reduced uncertainty for educators and institutions. It also encouraged interoperability among platforms and repositories, since users could more easily identify which resources could be legally copied, modified, and redistributed.

3 Licensing and permissions

Licensing is central to the concept of OER. The legal terms attached to a resource determine whether it can be reused, revised, or shared in new settings. Clear permissions are what distinguish open educational materials from merely accessible ones.

3.1 Open licenses

Open licenses grant users broad rights while setting out conditions such as attribution or share-alike requirements. They are widely used for educational materials because they provide a predictable framework for lawful reuse.

3.1.1 Creative Commons licenses

Creative Commons licenses are among the most common tools for OER. They allow creators to choose from several standardized options, ranging from highly permissive licenses to those requiring more restrictions.

In education, these licenses make it easier to combine resources from multiple sources, provided the terms are compatible. They are widely recognized across institutions, repositories, and publishing platforms.

3.1.2 Public domain materials

Public domain materials are not protected by copyright or have had those rights expire or be waived where legally possible. Such materials can usually be used without permission or attribution, although ethical citation is still often encouraged.

Public domain works play an important role in OER because they can be adapted freely. Historical texts, government documents, and older educational works are common examples.

3.2 The 5R permissions

The 5R framework describes the main actions that make educational resources truly open. These permissions capture the practical freedoms needed for meaningful educational reuse.

3.2.1 Retain

Retain means users may make, own, and control copies of the content. This allows learners and educators to keep resources for later use without depending on continued access to the original source.

3.2.2 Reuse

Reuse refers to using the material in its unaltered form in a variety of settings. A teacher might place an open reading in a course packet, or a student might use a video for review.

3.2.3 Revise

Revise means users may adapt, adjust, or modify the content. This is especially important when materials need to match local curricula, language preferences, or specific learner needs.

3.2.4 Remix

Remix allows users to combine the original or revised content with other open materials to create something new. This can produce customized lessons, modules, or complete units.

3.2.5 Redistribute

Redistribute means sharing copies of the original or modified resource with others. This makes OER useful not only for individual use, but also for collective educational exchange.

3.3 Attribution and reuse conditions

Many OER licenses require attribution, meaning users must credit the original creator and indicate whether changes were made. Attribution helps preserve authorship while still allowing broad reuse.

Some licenses impose additional conditions, such as sharing adaptations under the same license or avoiding commercial use. Educators usually need to understand these terms before combining resources, especially when assembling materials from different sources.

4 Formats and examples

OER appear in many formats, reflecting the wide variety of educational settings in which they are used. Some are complete instructional packages, while others serve as supporting materials within a larger course.

4.1 Open textbooks

Open textbooks are full textbooks released under open licenses or in the public domain. They are often used in place of commercial textbooks and can be customized for specific courses or regions.

Because they can be revised and updated, open textbooks may better reflect current examples, local contexts, or institution-specific teaching goals. They are particularly common in introductory university courses and general education subjects.

4.2 Open courseware

Open courseware consists of course materials from classes made publicly available for reuse. These may include lecture notes, reading lists, assignments, slides, and recordings.

Open courseware is especially valuable for learners seeking structured exposure to a subject and for instructors looking for models of course design. It usually offers insight into how a course is organized, even when it is not a complete self-paced class.

4.3 Lesson plans and teaching guides

Lesson plans and teaching guides help instructors organize classroom activities, assess learning, and sequence topics. Open versions may include timing suggestions, discussion questions, and recommendations for classroom implementation.

Such materials are useful in both formal and informal education because they reduce preparation time and support adaptation for different class sizes or levels.

4.4 Assessments and quizzes

Open assessments and quizzes provide practice opportunities and can be used to check understanding. They may include answer keys, rubrics, and question banks that instructors can modify.

These resources are helpful for both formative and summative purposes. Their openness allows educators to adjust difficulty, reword questions, or align items with local standards.

4.5 Media and simulations

Media and simulations include instructional videos, virtual labs, interactive models, and animated demonstrations. They are especially useful when visualizing processes or practicing skills that are difficult to replicate in a classroom.

In science, engineering, health, and language instruction, such materials can enrich learning through repetition and experimentation. Their adaptability makes them a strong fit for blended and digital teaching environments.

5 Creation and adaptation

Creating OER requires both subject knowledge and attention to openness. Authors must consider pedagogical clarity, licensing, format, and the potential for later modification by others.

5.1 Authoring OER

Authoring OER involves designing materials with reuse in mind. Writers often use clear structure, editable file formats, and modular organization so that others can revise the content efficiently.

Effective OER authors also think about audience, accessibility, and context. A resource intended for broad use typically avoids overly local references unless they are easily replaceable.

5.2 Localization and translation

Localization adapts content to a particular place, audience, or educational system. Translation changes the language of the material, while localization may also adjust examples, terminology, measurement units, or cultural references.

These processes make OER more usable across regions and communities. They are among the most important benefits of openness, since users can reshape resources without waiting for the original author to produce a new edition.

5.3 Quality review and peer contribution

Because OER are often shared widely and revised by multiple contributors, quality review is an important part of the process. Peer feedback can improve accuracy, clarity, and pedagogical usefulness.

Contributions from teachers, subject specialists, and instructional designers often strengthen the final resource. However, open contribution also requires editorial oversight to maintain consistency and reliability.

5.4 Updating and version control

Open resources may change over time as information, standards, or teaching methods evolve. Version control helps track revisions so that users can identify which edition they are using and compare changes across releases.

This is particularly important for complex resources such as textbooks or courseware. Clear versioning reduces confusion and supports citation, reuse, and long-term maintenance.

6 Distribution and access

The practical value of OER depends on how easily users can find and obtain them. Distribution systems therefore play a key role in making openness effective in everyday teaching and learning.

6.1 Online repositories

Online repositories collect and organize open materials in searchable collections. They may be run by universities, libraries, nonprofit organizations, or collaborative networks.

These repositories often provide metadata, license information, and download options. Their organization helps users locate materials by subject, level, format, or language.

6.2 Institutional platforms

Schools, colleges, and other educational institutions may host OER on their own websites or learning platforms. Institutional hosting can support local relevance and encourage faculty participation.

Such platforms may also integrate open content into course management systems, making it easier for instructors to assign readings, share files, and update materials within a class environment.

6.3 Search and discoverability

Discoverability is essential for OER adoption. Even high-quality resources can remain unused if they are difficult to locate or if their licensing information is unclear.

Search tools, metadata standards, and consistent labeling improve access. Good discoverability helps users assess whether a resource suits their needs and whether it can be legally adapted.

6.4 Offline and low-bandwidth access

Not all learners have reliable internet access, so offline distribution remains important. OER can be shared through downloaded files, printed packets, USB drives, or local servers.

Low-bandwidth access strategies make open resources more practical in areas with limited connectivity. This extends the usefulness of OER beyond fully digital learning environments.

7 Educational uses

OER are used across a wide range of educational activities. Their adaptability makes them suitable for direct instruction, independent study, curriculum planning, and professional learning.

7.1 Classroom instruction

Teachers use OER to support lessons, provide readings, assign practice, and present multimedia content. Because these resources can be modified, instructors can align them closely with course goals and student backgrounds.

In classroom settings, OER may replace commercial materials entirely or serve as supplementary content. Their flexibility is especially useful when lessons need frequent updating.

7.2 Self-directed learning

Learners often use OER independently to study a topic at their own pace. Free access and broad availability make them appealing for people seeking additional practice, enrichment, or remedial study.

Self-directed learners benefit from the variety of formats available, including textbooks, videos, and exercises. This allows them to choose materials that fit their preferences and schedule.

7.3 Distance education

OER are well suited to distance education because they can be distributed digitally and reused across multiple cohorts. They help reduce the cost of course development and support learners who are not physically present on campus.

In online courses, open materials may be embedded within learning systems or shared as standalone resources. Their reusability also helps institutions scale offerings more efficiently.

7.4 Curriculum development

Curriculum developers use OER to assemble units, sequences, and assessments from open components. This modular approach can save time and support alignment with learning standards or local requirements.

Open materials make it easier to revise curricula in response to new information or changing educational priorities. They can also foster collaboration among teachers working across departments or institutions.

7.5 Professional development for educators

Educators use OER for training, refresher study, and pedagogical improvement. Open courses, guides, and workshops can help teachers explore new methods without financial barriers.

Professional development materials are often especially valuable when they are easy to adapt for local school systems. Open resources can be shared within staff groups or adapted for mentoring and teacher training programs.

8 Benefits

OER offer a range of practical and educational advantages. Their impact is often discussed in relation to affordability, access, and the ability to tailor instruction.

8.1 Cost reduction

One of the most visible benefits of OER is lower cost. Students may avoid purchasing expensive textbooks, and institutions may reduce spending on proprietary content.

Savings can also appear in course development, since educators may build on existing open materials rather than commissioning everything anew. The magnitude of the savings varies by context and implementation.

8.2 Wider access to learning materials

Because OER are freely available, they can reach learners who might otherwise face financial or geographic barriers. This can be especially important in regions where access to commercial educational materials is limited.

Open distribution also supports lifelong learning. People outside formal institutions may use the same resources as enrolled students, expanding educational participation.

8.3 Flexibility for instructors

Instructors can modify OER to suit class size, level, language, and learning goals. This flexibility helps teachers respond to different student populations and local curricula.

Rather than being locked into a fixed edition, educators can adapt content over time. This can improve classroom relevance and reduce dependence on materials that do not fully match course needs.

8.4 Support for collaboration

OER encourage collaboration among educators, institutions, and communities. Shared materials can be improved through collective review, adaptation, and redistribution.

This collaborative model can strengthen professional networks and reduce duplication of effort. It also makes it easier to exchange local expertise across institutions and regions.

8.5 Alignment with open pedagogy

Open pedagogy emphasizes learning activities in which students actively contribute to knowledge creation. OER support this approach by allowing learners to edit, annotate, remix, and publish materials.

When combined with open pedagogy, OER can shift students from passive consumers to active participants. This can deepen engagement and build skills in research, communication, and digital authorship.

9 Challenges and limitations

Despite their advantages, OER also face practical obstacles. Adoption depends on funding, technical infrastructure, quality controls, and institutional support.

9.1 Sustainability and funding

Creating and maintaining OER requires time, expertise, and ongoing resources. Without stable support, materials may become outdated or incomplete.

Funding models vary widely and may include grants, institutional budgets, nonprofit support, or partnerships. Sustaining open projects over the long term remains a major concern.

9.2 Quality assurance

Users sometimes worry about the accuracy or pedagogical quality of open materials. Because OER can be created and revised by many contributors, review processes are important.

Quality can vary across subjects and platforms. Reliable metadata, editorial standards, and peer review help users judge whether a resource is appropriate for their needs.

9.3 Technical barriers

Not all users have the tools or skills needed to edit or redistribute digital content. File compatibility, software requirements, and platform design can limit reuse.

Technical barriers may also affect institutions that want to host or maintain open materials. Accessible file formats and straightforward workflows can reduce these difficulties.

9.4 Awareness and adoption

Many educators remain unfamiliar with OER or uncertain about how to find and use them. This can slow adoption even when materials are available.

Institutional culture also matters. Support from administrators, librarians, and instructional designers often influences whether open resources become part of everyday teaching practice.

9.5 Accessibility and inclusivity

OER are not automatically accessible to all learners. Materials may lack captions, alternative text, screen-reader compatibility, or clear language choices.

Inclusivity also involves cultural and linguistic relevance. Open resources work best when they are designed or adapted with diverse learners in mind.

10 Policy and institutional support

Policy choices and institutional practices strongly influence the development of OER. Supportive frameworks can encourage creation, sharing, and long-term use.

10.1 Government initiatives

Some governments support OER through funding programs, public repositories, or educational mandates. These initiatives may be aimed at reducing costs and expanding access to learning materials.

Public-sector involvement can also help establish standards for licensing and distribution. In many cases, government support gives OER a wider reach than isolated local projects.

10.2 University and school adoption

Universities and schools often play a direct role by encouraging faculty to adopt or create open materials. They may provide grants, training, and instructional design assistance.

Institutional adoption can normalize the use of OER and integrate them into curriculum planning. It also helps build communities of practice among educators working on similar courses.

10.3 Open access and educational policy

OER are sometimes linked with broader open access policies that promote public availability of knowledge. Although the two terms are not identical, both reflect a commitment to reducing barriers to information.

Educational policy may support open licensing, shared repositories, or textbook affordability initiatives. Such policies can shape how open materials are produced, funded, and used.

10.4 Funding models and partnerships

OER projects are often supported through partnerships among universities, libraries, nonprofits, publishers, and philanthropic organizations. These collaborations can pool expertise and resources.

Funding models may include grants, institutional subsidies, membership structures, or shared service arrangements. Each approach has strengths and trade-offs in terms of stability and scale.

11 Related concepts

OER are part of a wider ecosystem of open knowledge and digital education. Several related ideas overlap with or support the use of open educational materials.

11.1 Open educational practices

Open educational practices refer to teaching and learning methods that make use of open resources, collaborative creation, and participatory pedagogy. They extend beyond the materials themselves to include how learning is organized.

11.2 Open access

Open access is the free availability of scholarly research and academic writing. It is closely related to OER because both promote wider access to knowledge, though they serve different kinds of content.

11.3 Free content

Free content is material available at no cost, but not necessarily with open permissions. The distinction between free access and open licensing is central to understanding OER.

11.4 Open-source software in education

Open-source software in education refers to programs whose source code can be viewed, modified, and redistributed. Such software often supports the creation, storage, and delivery of OER.