1 History
1.1 Founding and Congressional Charter (1863)
The National Academy of Sciences was established during the American Civil War by an act of Congress signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3, 1863. The founding charter, known as the Act of Incorporation, created a private, nonprofit institution tasked with investigating, examining, experimenting, and reporting upon any subject of science or art whenever called upon by any department of the government. The original 50 incorporators included prominent scientists such as Alexander Dallas Bache, Louis Agassiz, and Benjamin Peirce. The charter explicitly stated that the Academy would receive no federal funding for its operations, ensuring its independence while obligating it to serve as an official advisor to the U.S. government.
1.2 Early roles in advising the U.S. government
In its early decades, the NAS responded to specific requests from federal agencies. It advised on topics such as the standardization of weights and measures, the improvement of coastal surveys, and the development of navigational aids for the Navy. During the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, the Academy was consulted on the surveying of the Isthmus of Panama for a potential canal. However, its advisory role remained limited and ad hoc until the early 20th century, when the scope of federal science expanded significantly.
1.3 20th century expansion
1.3.1 Creation of the National Research Council (1916)
As World War I approached, the U.S. government recognized the need for a more organized scientific advisory structure. In 1916, at the request of President Woodrow Wilson, the NAS created the National Research Council (NRC) as its operational arm. The NRC was designed to mobilize the nation's scientific resources for national defense and to foster cooperation among government, academia, and industry. It quickly became the primary mechanism through which the Academy conducted major studies and provided expert advice.
1.3.2 Post–World War II growth
Following World War II, the NAS and its NRC experienced a dramatic expansion in scope and influence. The wartime success of science in radar, atomic weapons, and medicine led to sustained federal investment in research. The Academy broadened its advisory activities to cover nearly every area of science and engineering, and its membership grew from about 300 in the 1940s to over 2,000 by the end of the century. In 1964, the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) was established under the NAS charter, and in 1970 the Institute of Medicine (IOM, later the National Academy of Medicine) was founded.
1.4 Merger with the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Medicine (2015–2016)
Although the three academies—NAS, NAE, and NAM—shared a common charter and operated under the umbrella of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, they remained legally separate entities for decades. In 2015, the NAS approved a merger with the NAE and NAM, consolidating their governance into a single unified organization. The merger was finalized in 2016, creating the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (the National Academies). The NAS continues to exist as a membership organization within this larger umbrella, while the NRC serves as the principal operating agency for all three academies.
2 Membership
2.1 Election process
2.1.1 Nomination and peer review
Membership in the NAS is a highly selective honor. Each year, existing members may nominate candidates who have made extraordinary contributions to original research. The nomination process is confidential and involves extensive peer review. Candidates are evaluated by subject-specific committees within the Academy, which assess the originality, impact, and significance of their work. The final slate of nominees is presented to the full membership for a vote.
2.1.2 Annual election limits
To maintain the prestige of membership, the NAS limits the number of new members elected each year. Since the early 2000s, the annual limit has been set at 84 new members, though the actual number elected often falls slightly below that due to the rigorous standards applied. Additionally, up to 21 foreign associates may be elected annually. No more than 100 total individuals (members and foreign associates combined) are elected in any given year.
2.2 Membership criteria
2.2.1 Distinguished and sustained achievements
Election to the NAS is based solely on a candidate's record of distinguished and sustained achievements in original scientific research. The Academy does not consider professional service, administrative roles, or public visibility unless they directly stem from high-quality research. The expectation is that members have made fundamental contributions that have advanced their fields.
2.2.2 U.S. citizenship vs. foreign associates
Full membership in the NAS is restricted to U.S. citizens and permanent residents (green card holders). Non-citizens who are not permanent residents may be elected as foreign associates, a separate category with the same prestige but without voting rights in Academy governance. Foreign associates are drawn from countries around the world and represent the highest level of scientific achievement internationally.
2.3 Membership statistics
2.3.1 Total number of active members
As of 2025, the NAS has approximately 2,400 active members. The total number of living members has grown steadily but remains highly exclusive—fewer than 0.1% of U.S.-based scientists and engineers are members.
2.3.2 Foreign associates
There are currently about 500 foreign associates, representing over 40 countries. The largest contingents come from the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, and Japan. Foreign associates are elected without regard to geographic quotas, based solely on scientific merit.
2.3.3 Notable members by field
The NAS has historically been dominated by the physical and biological sciences. Current membership spans the life sciences (including molecular biology, genetics, and ecology), physical sciences (physics, chemistry, astronomy), social and behavioral sciences (economics, psychology, sociology), and applied sciences (engineering, computer science). Among its most famous members have been Albert Einstein (elected 1922), Stephen Hawking (foreign associate, 1992), and numerous Nobel laureates. Approximately 190 living Nobel laureates are current NAS members.
3 Governance and structure
3.1 Council and officers
The NAS is governed by a Council consisting of the officers listed below plus nine elected councillors. The Council meets regularly to set policy, oversee finances, and guide the Academy's activities.
3.1.1 President
The President of the NAS serves as the chief executive officer of the Academy and chairs the Council. Elected by the membership for a six-year term (renewable once), the President represents the NAS in interactions with the government, other scientific organizations, and the public. Notable presidents have included Alexander Dallas Bache (1863–1867), Frank Press (1981–1993), and Marcia McNutt (2016–present, as of 2025).
3.1.2 Vice President
The Vice President assists the President and serves as acting President when necessary. The Vice President is elected by the membership for a four-year term and often chairs key committees.
3.1.3 Home Secretary and Foreign Secretary
The Home Secretary manages domestic affairs of the Academy, including membership elections and internal communications. The Foreign Secretary oversees international relations, including the election of foreign associates and the Academy's participation in global scientific Unions. Both secretaries are elected for six-year terms.
3.1.4 Treasurer
The Treasurer is responsible for the financial affairs of the NAS, including budgeting, investments, and audits. The Treasurer serves a four-year term and works closely with the NAS finance office.
3.2 Committees and boards
3.2.1 Standing committees
Standing committees are permanent bodies that oversee ongoing Academy activities. They include the Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy (COSEPUP), the Committee on Human Rights, and the Committee on Gender Equity in Science. These committees develop policy recommendations and ensure the Academy fulfills its charter obligations.
3.2.2 Ad hoc study committees
When the NAS undertakes a specific study or report, it convenes an ad hoc study committee composed of experts from inside and outside the Academy. These committees operate under the oversight of the National Research Council. They are dissolved after the completion of their task. Each committee conducts a rigorous peer-review process before issuing its final report.
3.3 Relationship with the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
3.3.1 The National Research Council
The National Research Council (NRC) is the operating arm of the entire National Academies system. While the NAS is one of three member academies, the NRC carries out the actual studies and research projects requested by the government or by private sponsors. The NRC was originally created by the NAS in 1916 but now serves all three academies jointly.
3.3.2 Shared governance
Since the merger in 2016, the NAS shares a governing Council with the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Medicine under the unified structure of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Each academy retains its own membership election process and its own President, but a single Board of Governors oversees the overall National Academies organization. The three Presidents sit on this board, along with other leaders.
4 Publications and activities
4.1 Journals
4.1.1 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)
PNAS is the flagship journal of the NAS. Established in 1914, it is one of the world's most cited multidisciplinary scientific journals. It publishes original research, reviews, commentaries, and perspectives across all fields of science and engineering. Articles are selected through a unique editorial process that allows NAS members to communicate the work of non-members after peer review. PNAS is published weekly in print and continuously online.
4.1.2 PNAS Nexus
Launched in 2022, PNAS Nexus is an open-access, online-only sister journal to PNAS. It emphasizes rapid publication of high-quality research across the sciences, with a particular focus on interdisciplinary and translational work. PNAS Nexus uses a standard editorial process without the member-communication model of its parent journal.
4.2 Reports and studies
4.2.1 Science policy reports
The NAS produces numerous reports that advise the federal government on science and technology policy. These reports are typically commissioned by Congress or executive agencies. Topics range from climate change and energy policy to artificial intelligence and pandemic preparedness. The reports are authored by expert committees and undergo extensive external peer review.
4.2.2 Consensus studies
Consensus studies are in-depth, evidence-based reports that aim to establish the scientific consensus on a given topic. They are the most authoritative type of NAS publication. Each study is conducted by a committee of leading experts, who review all available evidence and produce a detailed analysis. These studies often inform major national policy decisions.
4.3 Symposia and meetings
4.3.1 Annual meeting
The NAS holds an annual meeting each spring, typically in Washington, D.C. The meeting includes the induction of new members, scientific symposia, award ceremonies, and business sessions. It serves as a forum for members to discuss cutting-edge research and Academy affairs.
4.3.2 Sackler symposia
The Sackler Symposia series, funded by the Sackler family, are high-profile scientific conferences organized by the NAS. Each symposium focuses on a specific topic of emerging scientific importance. They are held several times a year at the National Academies' Beckman Center in Irvine, California, and occasionally at other venues. The symposia are open to the broader scientific community by application.
5 Awards and honors
5.1 Major medals
5.1.1 Public Welfare Medal
The Public Welfare Medal is the most prestigious honor conferred by the NAS. Established in 1914, it is awarded annually to an individual who has made extraordinary contributions to the application of science to the public welfare. Recipients need not be scientists and have included politicians, philanthropists, and activists. Notable recipients include Jonas Salk (1976), Carl Sagan (1994), and Bill Gates (2010).
5.1.2 NAS Award in the Neurosciences
This award, established in 1993, recognizes outstanding contributions to the field of neuroscience. It is one of the Academy's most competitive awards and is often considered a precursor to a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
5.1.3 Henry Draper Medal
The Henry Draper Medal was established in 1886 by the widow of astronomer Henry Draper. It is awarded every four years for important contributions to astronomical physics. It has been awarded to many notable astronomers, including Edwin Hubble (1940) and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1953).
5.2 Named lectureships
The NAS supports several named lecture series, including the Arthur M. Sackler Lecture on Science and Technology, the Robert M. Solow Lecture on Economic Growth, and the W. K. H. Panofsky Lecture on Physics. These lectures bring distinguished scientists to the Academy to share their work with members and the public.
5.3 Recognition of early-career scientists
The NAS offers several awards specifically for early-career researchers. The NAS Award in Molecular Biology, the NAS Award in the Neurosciences (also open to early career), and the Kavli Frontiers of Science program recognize and encourage promising scientists under the age of 45. The Academy also hosts the U.S. Frontiers of Science symposia for young investigators.
6 Public engagement and outreach
6.1 Science communication initiatives
The NAS runs numerous initiatives to improve science communication. It partners with media organizations to provide expert commentary, produces short explainer videos on current topics, and maintains a website (nas.edu) with educational resources. The Academy also issues press releases and holds press conferences to highlight its reports and public statements.
6.2 Educational programs
6.2.1 Science & Entertainment Exchange
The Science & Entertainment Exchange is a program that connects scientists with professionals in the film, television, and video game industries. Launched in 2008, it aims to improve the accuracy of science portrayals in popular media while making science accessible and engaging. The program has consulted on productions such as *The Big Bang Theory*, *Avengers: Endgame*, and *The Martian*.
6.2.2 K–12 teacher resources
The NAS provides free educational resources for K–12 teachers, including lesson plans, interactive simulations, and science fair guides. These materials are aligned with national science education standards and emphasize hands-on, inquiry-based learning. The Academy also offers professional development workshops for teachers.
6.3 Exhibitions and public lectures
The NAS building in Washington, D.C., houses a museum-quality exhibition space that features rotating exhibits on scientific topics. Past exhibits have covered the history of the Apollo program, the science of chocolate, and the biodiversity of coral reefs. The Academy also hosts a series of public lectures throughout the year, free and open to all, on topics ranging from climate change to the origins of the universe.