1 Biography
1.1 Early life and childhood
Franz Joseph Haydn was born on 31 March 1732 in the village of Rohrau, Lower Austria, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was the second of twelve children of Mathias Haydn, a wheelwright and market judge, and Anna Maria Koller, a former cook at the court of Count Harrach. The family was musically inclined: Mathias played the harp, and young Joseph joined in singing folk songs. Recognizing his talent, a cousin, Johann Matthias Frankh, a schoolmaster and choirmaster in Hainburg, took Joseph into his home at age six to train him as a musician. There he learned the harpsichord, violin, and singing, enduring a strict regimen that included occasional hunger and harsh discipline.
1.2 Years as a chorister
In 1740, at about age eight, Haydn was recruited by Georg von Reutter, the Kapellmeister of St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna. Reutter heard Haydn sing and immediately offered him a place in the cathedral choir school. Haydn spent the next nine years there, receiving instruction in singing, keyboard, and violin, but little formal training in music theory or composition. Despite the limitations, he absorbed a great deal by hearing the works of contemporary composers and by practicing on his own. In 1749, when his voice broke, he was dismissed from the choir after playing a prank—cutting off a fellow chorister’s pigtail—though the real reason was his inability to continue as a treble.
1.3 Employment with the Esterházy family
After leaving the choir school, Haydn struggled as a freelance musician in Vienna, teaching and performing. He became an assistant to the Italian composer Nicola Porpora, learning the fundamentals of composition. In 1757, he secured his first important position as Kapellmeister to Count Morzin, but that post ended when the count faced financial troubles. In 1761, Haydn was hired as Vice-Kapellmeister by Prince Paul Anton Esterházy, head of one of the wealthiest and most powerful Hungarian noble families. He moved to the Esterházy palace at Eisenstadt.
1.3.1 Kapellmeister duties
Upon the death of the previous Kapellmeister, Gregor Werner, in 1766, Haydn was promoted to full Kapellmeister. His responsibilities were extensive: he composed music for daily and special occasions, conducted the orchestra, maintained the instruments, supervised the library, and trained the singers. He was also required to produce a steady stream of symphonies, chamber works, operas, and sacred music for the prince’s court. The Esterházy musicians lived and worked under Haydn’s direction, and he maintained strict discipline but also earned their respect.
1.3.2 Relationship with Prince Nikolaus
Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, who succeeded his brother Paul Anton in 1762, was a passionate patron of the arts. He particularly loved the baryton, a string instrument resembling a viola da gamba, and Haydn composed numerous works for it. The prince also built a magnificent summer palace, Eszterháza, in rural Hungary, where the court spent most of the year. Haydn was required to reside there for long periods, which led to his famous "Farewell" Symphony (see §3.1.1). Haydn enjoyed a good relationship with Prince Nikolaus, who valued his service and allowed him considerable creative freedom, though he remained a liveried servant.
1.4 Later career and visits to London
After Prince Nikolaus’s death in 1790, his successor, Prince Anton, disbanded the musical establishment and retained only Haydn on a pension. Freed from daily court duties, Haydn accepted an invitation from the impresario Johann Peter Salomon to visit London.
1.4.1 First London visit (1791–1792)
Haydn arrived in England on 1 January 1791 and was greeted with great enthusiasm. He composed twelve symphonies for Salomon’s concerts (the "London" symphonies, Nos. 93–104). The English public adored his music, and he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford. He also composed the "Surprise" Symphony (No. 94) during this visit. Professionally and financially, the trip was a triumph. He returned to Vienna in July 1792.
1.4.2 Second London visit (1794–1795)
Haydn made a second journey to London in 1794–1795, again under Salomon’s auspices. He produced six more symphonies (Nos. 99–104). During this stay, he also met the young Ludwig van Beethoven, who briefly studied with him later. Haydn was moved by a performance of Handel’s oratorios, which inspired him to compose his own large-scale choral works. He left England for good in August 1795, returning to Vienna wealthy and famous.
1.5 Final years and death
Back in Vienna, Haydn lived quietly but continued composing. He completed his two great oratorios, *The Creation* (1798) and *The Seasons* (1801). His health declined gradually, and he stopped composing in 1803. In 1809, as Vienna was besieged by Napoleon’s forces, Haydn was confined to his home. He died peacefully on 31 May 1809, aged 77, just weeks after the French occupation. His funeral was held at the Schottenkirche, and his remains were later transferred to the Bergkirche in Eisenstadt.
2 Musical style and innovations
2.1 Development of the symphony and string quartet
Haydn is often called the "Father of the Symphony" and "Father of the String Quartet" because he established the classical forms of both genres. He wrote 104 symphonies, transforming the early Baroque sinfonia into a four-movement structure (fast, slow, minuet, fast) with clear thematic development. His string quartets, numbering 68, similarly standardized the four-movement layout and treated the four instruments as equal partners in dialogue, a departure from the Baroque trio sonata.
2.2 Use of humor and surprise
Haydn’s music is famous for its wit, playfulness, and sudden surprises. The "Surprise" Symphony (No. 94) features a loud chord in the second movement to wake inattentive listeners. The "Farewell" Symphony ends with players leaving the stage one by one. Other examples include sudden dynamic shifts, false endings, and unexpected harmonic turns. This humor was not mere jest but a deliberate tool to engage audiences and challenge conventions.
2.3 Influence on sonata form
Haydn played a crucial role in developing the classical sonata form, which became the foundation of much later Western music. He expanded the exposition, development, and recapitulation sections, often introducing secondary themes in unexpected keys. His works often feature monothematic expositions—building the entire movement from a single motive—and elaborate tonal plans in the development section. These innovations influenced Mozart, Beethoven, and later composers.
2.4 Orchestration and dynamics
Haydn was a pioneer in orchestration. He expanded the size and color of the orchestra, using wind instruments (pairs of oboes, horns, bassoons) as standard and later adding clarinets, trumpets, and timpani. He employed dramatic dynamic contrasts, including crescendos and sudden piano passages, which were relatively new at the time. His use of orchestral silence (general pause) for dramatic effect became a hallmark.
3 Major works
3.1 Symphonies
3.1.1 "Farewell" Symphony (No. 45)
Composed in 1772, Symphony No. 45 in F-sharp minor is famous for its final movement, during which musicians gradually leave the stage. According to tradition, Haydn wrote it to signal to Prince Nikolaus that the musicians wished to return to Eisenstadt from Eszterháza. The prince understood the hint, and the court departed soon after. The symphony is also notable for its unusual key and its emotional depth.
3.1.2 "Surprise" Symphony (No. 94)
Symphony No. 94 in G major, composed in 1791 during Haydn’s first London visit, is nicknamed "Surprise" because of a sudden fortissimo chord in the slow second movement. The story goes that Haydn added it to wake sleeping audience members. The work is a prime example of his humor and remains one of his most popular symphonies.
3.1.3 London Symphonies (Nos. 93–104)
The twelve symphonies composed for Salomon’s concerts (1791–1795) are collectively known as the London Symphonies. They represent the culmination of Haydn’s symphonic output, showcasing his mature style with richer orchestration, greater thematic unity, and more adventurous harmonies. Among them are the "Military" (No. 100), the "Clock" (No. 101), the "Drumroll" (No. 103), and the "London" (No. 104).
3.2 String quartets
3.2.1 Opus 33 ("Russian" quartets)
Composed in 1781, Opus 33 consists of six quartets dedicated to Grand Duke Paul of Russia. Haydn called them written "in a new and special way"—their style features lighter textures, more equal part-writing, and greater use of thematic development. These quartets established the four-movement form (with a scherzo-like minuet) and influenced Mozart’s six "Haydn" quartets.
3.2.2 Opus 76 ("Erdődy" quartets)
Opus 76, composed in 1797, is Haydn’s most famous set of string quartets. Dedicated to Count Erdődy, they exhibit unparalleled mastery: the "Emperor" Quartet (No. 3) contains variations on his melody "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser," later used for the German national anthem. The set is celebrated for its emotional range, contrapuntal skill, and innovative structures.
3.3 Oratorios and choral works
3.3.1 *The Creation*
*The Creation* (1798) is Haydn’s most famous oratorio. Set to a German text translated from English (based on the Book of Genesis and John Milton’s *Paradise Lost*), it portrays the creation of the world in three parts. The music is vivid and dramatic, from the chaotic prelude to the radiant "Let there be light" chord. It became an immediate success and remains a staple of the choral repertoire.
3.3.2 *The Seasons*
Completed in 1801, *The Seasons* is based on James Thomson’s poem of the same name. It celebrates rural life through the four seasons, with soloists, chorus, and orchestra. Although less revered than *The Creation*, it contains exquisite pastoral music, such as the hunting chorus and the spinning song. Some contemporaries criticized its secular subject for an oratorio, but it has endured.
3.4 Piano sonatas and trios
Haydn composed about 52 piano sonatas and over 30 piano trios. His sonatas, written primarily for the fortepiano, show a progression from early lightweight works to late masterpieces (e.g., No. 62 in E-flat major). The piano trios are unique in that the piano often dominates, while the violin and cello provide support; they were among his most popular works during his lifetime.
3.5 Other instrumental works
Haydn also wrote numerous other works, including concertos for cello (e.g., Cello Concerto No. 1 in C major), trumpet (Trumpet Concerto in E-flat major), and horn; about 60 divertimenti; and 14 masses (e.g., *Missa in tempore belli*, *Nelson Mass*). His baryton trios, written for Prince Nikolaus, number over 100. Many of these works are still performed today.
4 Legacy and influence
4.1 Haydn and Mozart
Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart were close friends and mutual admirers. They first met in Vienna in the early 1780s. Mozart dedicated six string quartets to Haydn (the "Haydn" quartets, K. 387, 421, 428, 458, 464, 465) to honor his influence. Haydn, in turn, praised Mozart’s genius and said, "Posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years." Their relationship deepened Haydn’s own late style, particularly in chamber music.
4.2 Haydn and Beethoven
Ludwig van Beethoven studied briefly with Haydn in Vienna from 1792 to 1794. The lessons were not altogether harmonious—Beethoven found Haydn too conventional, and Haydn may have been preoccupied with his London trips. Nevertheless, Beethoven always respected Haydn. Haydn’s innovations in form and motivic development influenced Beethoven’s early works, though Beethoven soon moved in his own radical direction.
4.3 Reception in the 19th and 20th centuries
In the 19th century, Haydn’s music was sometimes overshadowed by Beethoven and Romantic composers, but his reputation revived in the 20th century. Musicologists such as H. C. Robbins Landon and Jens Peter Larsen championed his works. The complete recording of Haydn’s symphonies by Antal Doráti and the revival of his operas and sacred music have cemented his status as a classic.
4.4 Modern performances and recordings
Today, Haydn’s works are performed worldwide. Period-instrument ensembles (e.g., The Academy of Ancient Music, The English Concert) have recorded his symphonies and quartets, revealing original timbres. The Haydn Festival in Eisenstadt and the Haydn Society promote his legacy. His "Surprise" Symphony and *The Creation* remain among the most frequently performed classical works.
5 Personal life and character
5.1 Marriage to Maria Anna Keller
In 1760, Haydn married Maria Anna Keller, the elder sister of a woman he had earlier loved. The marriage was unhappy: Maria Anna was reportedly cantankerous, had no interest in music, and used Haydn’s manuscripts as curling papers or pastry linings. They had no children. The couple eventually separated, though they never divorced. Haydn provided for her financially until her death in 1800.
5.2 Relationship with Luigia Polzelli
During his time at Eszterháza, Haydn had a long-term romantic relationship with Luigia Polzelli, an Italian mezzo-soprano employed at the court. Her husband, a violinist, was abusive, and Haydn became her protector. He wrote her a "quitclaim" promising to marry her if they both became free. Although his wife outlived Polzelli’s husband, Haydn never married her, but he left her an annuity in his will.
5.3 Religious beliefs and Freemasonry
Haydn was a devout Catholic. He often inscribed his scores with "Laus Deo" (Praise God) and wrote sacred music throughout his career. He was also a member of the Masonic lodge "Zur wahren Eintracht" (True Harmony) in Vienna, initiated in 1785. Freemasonry influenced some of his works (e.g., the "Seven Last Words of Christ"), though he left the lodge after Emperor Joseph II suppressed such organizations. His faith and Masonic ideals—charity, brotherhood, and enlightenment—shaped his worldview.